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THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


STAK  OK  -niH  ICAST 


EMPIRE 


THE 


OF  THE  EAST 


A SIMPLE  ACCOUNT  OF  JAPAN 
AS  IT  WAS,  IS,  AND  WILL  BE 


H.  B.  MONTGOMERY 


“THIS  NATION  IS  THE  DELIGHT  OF  MY  SOUL  ” 

ST.  FRANCIS  XAVIER 


WITH  NINETEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 


CHICAGO 

A.  C.  McCLURG  & CO. 

LONDON  : METHUEN  & CO. 


1909 


PREFACE 


N my  return  from  another  visit  to  Japan  a few  months 


ago  I found  those  persons  in  this  country  with  whom 
I was  brought  into  close  association  extremely  curious  and 
strangely  ignorant  regarding  that  ancient  Empire.  Despite 
the  multitude  of  books  which  have  of  late  years  been  pub- 
lished about  Japan  and  things  Japanese  a correct  knowledge 
of  the  country  and  the  people  is,  so  far  as  I can  judge, 
altogether  lacking  in  England.  Indeed  the  multiplicity  of 
books  may  have  something  to  do  with  that  fact,  as  many 
of  them  have  been  written  by  persons  whose  knowledge, 
acquired  in  the  course  of  a flying  visit,  was,  to  say  the  least, 
perfunctory,  and  who  had  no  opportunities  for  viewing  the 
life  of  the  people  from  within  and  forming  a sound  judg- 
ment on  many  matters  upon  which  the  writers  have 
dogmatically  pronounced.  I,  accordingly,  came  to  the 
conclusion  not  only  that  there  was  room  for  one  more  book 
on  Japan,  but  that  another  book  was  greatly  needed — a book 
not  technical,  historical,  abstruse  or  recondite,  but  a book 
describing  in  simple  language  Japan  as  it  was,  is,  and  will 
be.  This  is  the  task  I set  before  myself  when  I commenced 
to  write  this  volume,  and  the  reader  must  be  the  judge  to 
what  extent  I have  been  successful  in  the  accomplishment 


VI 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


thereof.  I have  touched  but  lightly  on  the  material 
development  of  the  country  of  recent  years.  I know  from 
experience  that  though  statistics  are  the  fad  of  a few  they 
are  caviare  to  the  great  mass  of  the  public.  Nor  have  I 
dealt  at  all  with  politics  or  political  parties  in  new  Japan. 
It  is,  I think,  unfortunate  that  the  Japanese  people,  in 
adopting  or  adapting  English  institutions,  should  have 
introduced  the  political  party  system  so  much  in  evidence 
in  Great  Britain  and  other  European  countries.  Whether 
that  system  works  well  in  the  West,  where  it  has  been  in 
existence  for  centuries  and  is  not  always  taken  over- 
seriously  by  party  politicians  themselves,  is  a question 
upon  which  I shall  express  no  opinion.  But  I think  it  is 
problematical  whether  such  a system  is  well  adapted  for 
an  Oriental  people,  possessed  of  and  permeated  by  an 
ancient  civilisation — a people  whose  feelings,  sentiments, 
modes  of  thought,  prejudices  and  passions  are  so  essen- 
tially different  from  those  of  Western  nations.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  Japanese  politics  find  no  place  in  this  work. 

The  morality  or  otherwise  of  the  Japanese  is  a matter 
which  has  been  much  discussed  and  written  about.  The 
views  of  speakers  and  writers  in  regard  thereto,  so  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  ascertain  them,  have  been  largely  affected 
by  their  prejudices  or  the  particular  standpoint  from  which 
they  have  regarded  the  matter.  The  result,  in  my  opinion, 
has  been  that  an  entirely  erroneous  conception  of  the 
whole  subject  of  Japanese  morality  has  not  only  been 
formed  but  has  been  set  forth  in  speech  or  writing,  and  a 
grave  injustice  has  been  done  to  the  Japanese  in  this 


PREFACE 


Vll 


matter,  to  say  nothing  of  the  entirely  false  view  of  the  whole 
question  which  has  been  promulgated.  In  this  book  I have 
endeavoured  to  deal  with  this  thorny  subject,  so  far  as  it 
can  be  dealt  with  in  a book,  free  from  prejudice  or  pre- 
conceived ideas  of  any  kind.  I have  simply  confined 
myself  to  facts,  and  have  endeavoured  to  represent  the 
whole  matter  as  it  appears  to  the  Japanese  and  to  morality 
according  to  the  Japanese  standard. 

I have  deemed  it  necessary  to  deal  at  some  length 
with  the  various  phases  of  Japanese  art,  which  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  has  permeated  the  whole  nation  so 
that  the  Japanese  may  truthfully  be  termed  the  most 
artistic  people  in  the  world.  Of  course  it  is  impossible  to 
deal  exhaustively  in  a work  of  this  kind  with  Japanese  art. 
I have,  however,  endeavoured  to  describe  the  principal  art 
industries  of  the  country  and  to  set  forth  what  I may  term 
the  catholicity  of  art  in  Japan.  I have  also  dealt  with  the 
question  how  far  art  has  been  affected  by  the  Europeanising 
of  the  nation  which  has  taken  place  of  recent  years,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

The  religion  of  the  Japanese,  the  Constitution,  the 
home  life  of  the  people,  the  Army  and  Navy,  the  financial 
position  of  the  country  are  all  subjects  treated  as  fully 
as  possible,  inasmuch  as  they  are  matters  essential  to  be 
understood  in  order  to  realise  the  Japan  of  to-day.  The 
Japan  of  the  future  I have  attempted  to  forecast  in  two 
final  chapters. 

But  the  Japan  of  to-day  and  the  Japan  of  the  future  can 
neither  be  understood  nor  realised  unless  the  reader  have 


viii 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


in  his  mind  some  idea  as  to  the  Japan  of  the  past — not  the 
barbaric  or  uncivilised  Japan  brought  into  contact  with 
civilisation  and  suddenly  discarding  its  barbarism,  which  is, 
I fear,  the  conception  many  persons  still  have,  but,  as  I 
have  sought  to  show,  a highly  civilised  country  holding  itself 
aloof  from  European  influences  and  excluding,  so  long  as 
possible,  the  European  invasion  of  its  shores  just  because 
it  had  convinced  itself  by  painful  experience  that  Euro- 
pean ideas  and  manners  and  methods  were  undesirable 
and  unsuitable  for  a great  island  nation  which  possessed 
and  cherished  a civilisation  of  its  own,  had  high  artistic 
ideas  and  ideals,  had  its  own  code  of  morals,  its  own 
conception  of  chivalry,  and  was,  on  the  whole,  undoubtedly 
happy,  contented,  and  prosperous.  I trust  the  chapter  I 
have  written  on  this  subject  will  tend  to  dispel  many 
erroneous  ideas. 

The  book  is  the  result  of  my  own  investigations,  and 
the  opinions  expressed  therein  are  entirely  my  own.  I 
have,  however,  read  nearly  every  work  on  Japan  that  has 
appeared  in  recent  years,  and  when  the  views  put  forward 
in  any  of  these  have  not  coincided  with  my  own  I have 
endeavoured,  by  impartial  investigation  and  inquiry,  to 
arrive  at  a correct  conclusion  in  the  matter.  No  doubt 
some  of  my  views  and  opinions  will  be  questioned  and 
criticised,  but  I claim  to  have  written  this  book  with  a 
mind  free  from  prejudices  of  any  kind.  I have  sought 
to  depict  Japan  as  it  really  is,  not  the  Japan  seen  through 
glasses  of  various  colours,  of  which,  I think,  the  public 
has  had  enough. 


H.  B.  M. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE  .......  V 

CHAPTER 

I.  A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST  . . . .1 

II.  THE  COUNTRY  : ITS  PHYSICAL  FEATURES— PRODUCTS — 

FAUNA — FLORA,  ETC.  . . . . .17 

III.  THE  JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE  . . 29 

IV.  THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN,  THEIR  INFLUENCES  AND 

EFFECTS  . . . . . . .39 

V.  THE  CONSTITUTION— THE  CROWN  AND  THE  HOUSES 

OF  PARLIAMENT  . . . . . .49 

VI.  THE  PEOPLE,  THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  . . .63 

VII.  TRADE,  COMMERCE,  AND  INDUSTRIES  . . .80 

VIII.  japan’s  financial  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  . . 90 

IX.  EDUCATION  . . . . . .103 

X.  THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  . . . I17 

XI.  JAPANESE  ART  — INTRODUCTORY  — LACQUER  AND 

PORCELAIN  . . . . . .131 

XII.  JAPANESE  ART — SCULPTURE— METAL  WORK — PAINTING  1 49 

XIII.  JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE  . . . .167 


X 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


CHAPTER  page 

XIV.  POSTAL  AND  OTHER  MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION  . 1 76 
XV.  LAW  AND  ORDER  . . . . . .185 

XVI.  LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA  . . . . 193 

XVII.  NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN  . . . . .202 

XVIII.  JAPANESE  MORALITY  . . . . .211 

XIX.  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  . . . . .221 

XX.  EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN  . . . . . 231 

XXL  A VISIT  TO  SOME  BUDDHIST  TEMPLES  . . . 244 

XXII.  THE  AINOS  .......  250 

XXIII.  JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY  .....  258 


XXIV.  THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN — PHYSICAL — MORAL — MENTAL  276 
XXV.  THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN— NATIONAL— POLITICAL — ITS 


INFLUENCE  ON  THE  WORLD 


288 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


A STAR  OF  THE  EAST  ....  Frontispiece 

From  a Print  by  Tosbikata 

FACING  PAGE 

THE  SWEET  SCENT  OF  THE  CHERRY  BLOSSOM  . . -30 


From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

A CHERRY  BLOSSOM  PARTY  . . . . .48 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

STREET  SCENE  ON  NEW  YEAR’S  DAY  . . . . 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

RICE  PLANTING,  PROVINCE  OF  HOKI  . . . .89 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

AMATEUR  CONCHOLOGISTS  . . . . . . Iio 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

VIEW  OF  FUSI-VAMA  FROM  A TEA  HOUSE  . . .138 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 


KUTANI  EARTHENWARE,  DECORATED  WITH  POLYCHROME' 
ENAMELS.  EARLY  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  . 

INCENSE-BURNER,  AWATA  FAYENCE.  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
From  “The  Arts  of  Japan,”  by  Edward  Dillon 


BRONZE  INCENSE-BURNER  AND  SMALL  FLOWER-VASE. 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  . . . . .154 

From  " The  Arts  of  Japan,"  by  Edward  Dillon 

KAKEMONO  ON  PAPER.  ATTRIBUTED  TO  MATAHEI  . | 

KAKEMONO  ON  PAPER.  ATTRIBUTED  TO  SHIMMAN,  UKIYO  [ 
SCHOOL.  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  . . . J 

From  “ The  Arts  of  Japan,’*  by  Edward  Dillon 
xi 


Xll 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


FACIKG  FADE 

TEA  HOUSE,  NEAR  TOKIO  . . . . . . 170 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

iERlAL  TRANSPORT  : BASKET  SLUNG  ON  ROPES,  PROVINCE  OF 

HIDA  . . . . . . . .182 

From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

A LABOUR  OF  LOVE  . . . . . .198 

From  a Print  by  Toshikata 

THE  ETERNAL  FEMININE  . . . . . . 2l8 

From  a Print  by  Toshikata 

A MINISTERING  ANGEL  . . . . . .242 

From  a Print  by  Toshikata 

FIREWORKS  IN  TOKIO  (SUMMER)  .....  264 
From  a Print  by  Hiroshige 

A SIGN  OF  THE  TIMES  . . . . • .278 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


CHAPTER  I 

A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 

I HAVE  seen  it  stated  in  a popular  handbook  that 
Japan  possesses  a written  history  extending  over 
two  thousand  five  hundred  years,  while  its  sovereigns 
have  formed  an  unbroken  dynasty  since  660  B.C.,  but 
that  the  “authentic  history  begins  about  400  A.D.” 
“ Authentic  history  ” is,  I consider,  not  a very  apt 
phrase  in  this  connection.  Most  Japanese  history  is 
legendary,  and  authenticity  in  history,  Japanese  or 
European,  even  much  later  than  400  A.D.,  is  hopeless 
to  look  for.  I have  no  intention  of  leading  my  readers 
into,  as  I should  find  a difficulty  in  extricating  them 
from,  the  mazes  of  Japanese  history  at  any  date.  I 
simply  propose  to  give  them  a glimpse  of  Japan  as  it 
has  appeared  to  Europeans  since  it  was  first  “ discovered  ” 
by  three  storm-tossed  Portuguese  sailors  about  the  year 
1542.  I say  “discovered”  with  full  knowledge  of  the 
fact  that  Marco  Paolo,  as  early  as  1275,  dictated  to  a 
friend  when  imprisoned  at  Genoa  that  stirring  narrative, 
“ Maravigliose  Cose,”  which,  by  the  way,  was  not  printed 
B 1 


2 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


for  nearly  two  centuries  later.  That  narrative  was  read 
by  and,  it  is  stated,  so  fired  the  imagination  of  Christopher 
Columbus  as  to  lead  him  to  set  out  on  that  voyage  of 
exploration  which  ended  in  the  discovery  of  America. 
Marco  Paolo’s  narrative  must,  however,  be  received  with 
caution.  I regard  it  as  largely  legendary.  He  never 
himself  visited  Japan,  and  his  glowing  description  of  the 
“ Isles  washed  by  stormy  seas  and  abounding  in  gold  and 
pearls  ” was  founded  on  what  he  had  been  told  by  the 
Chinese  he  had  met  during  his  Eastern  travels. 

The  commencement  of  European  intercourse  with 
Japan  may,  as  I have  said,  be  taken  to  be  1542,  when 
three  Portuguese  adventurers  in  a Chinese  junk  were 
driven  by  stress  of  weather  on  a part  of  the  Japanese 
coast  under  the  authority  of  the  Prince  of  Bungo.  The 
Portuguese  were  kindly  received  by  the  natives,  and  a 
treaty  or  arrangement  seems  to  have  been  entered  into 
whereby  a Portuguese  vessel  was  to  be  annually  despatched 
to  Japan  laden  with  “woollen  cloths,  furs,  silks,  taffetas,” 
and  other  articles.  Some  years  later  a Japanese  noble, 
Hansiro  by  name,  murdered  another  Japanese  and  fled 
the  country.  He  found  his  way  to  Goa,  where  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  some  Portuguese  priests,  and  was 
eventually  converted  to  Christianity  and  baptized.  He 
was,  if  the  records  of  his  career  are  correct,  desirous  to 
bring  to  his  fellow-countrymen  not  only  the  knowledge 
of  the  Christian  religion  but  many  articles  of  European 
commerce.  The  great  Apostle  of  the  East  and  disciple 
of  Ignatius  Loyola,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  had  then  recently 
arrived  in  Goa,  where  he  appears  to  have  taken  up  with 
ardour  the  project  of  converting  Japan.  Both  enterprises, 
the  material  and  the  spiritual,  seem  to  have  been  organised 
about  the  same  time.  A ship  was  loaded  with  articles 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


3 


likely  to  be  in  demand  in  Japan,  and  Francis  Xavier 
embarked  in  another  vessel,  with  the  Japanese  refugee 
and  a number  of  Jesuit  priests  as  missionaries. 

The  vessels  in  due  course  arrived  at  Bungo,  and  both 
priests  and  traders  were  cordially,  not  to  say  enthu- 
siastically, received.  Foreigners  were  evidently  not  then 
excluded  from  Japan,  and  no  objection  whatever  was 
made  to  the  Christian  propaganda  in  any  part  of  the 
country.  The  efforts  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  were 
crowned  with  remarkable  success.  All  ranks  and  classes, 
from  priest  to  peasant,  embraced  the  Catholic  faith. 
Churches,  schools,  convents,  and  monasteries  sprang  up 
all  over  the  country.  The  only  opposition  came  from  the 
Bonzes,  or  native  priests,  who  felt  their  influence  and 
power  declining.  They  appealed  to  the  Emperor  to 
banish  the  Roman  Catholic  priests,  but  the  imperial  edict 
simply  was,  “ Leave  the  strangers  in  peace.”  For  forty 
years  or  thereabouts  Catholicism  not  only  flourished  but 
was  triumphant.  Indeed,  a Japanese  mission  of  three 
princes  was  despatched  to  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  laden 
with  valuable  presents.  The  arrival  of  this  mission  was 
acclaimed  as  a veritable  triumph  throughout  Catholic 
Europe,  By  a stroke  of  irony  its  advent  there  was  almost 
contemporaneous  with  not  only  the  overthrow  but  the 
almost  total  extinction  of  Christianity  in  Japan.  The 
edict  for  the  banishment  of  the  missionaries  was  published 
in  1587.  It  was  followed  by  persecutions,  martyrdoms, 
and  the  rasing  of  all  the  Christian  churches  and  buildings — 
the  destruction,  in  a word,  of  Christianity  in  Japan.  This 
was  in  due  course  followed  by  not  only  the  expulsion  of 
all  foreigners  from  the  country — with  the  exception  of  the 
Dutch,  who  were  allowed  to  have  a factory  at  Nagasaki 
— but  the  enactment  of  a law,  rigidly  observed  for  two 


4 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  a half  centuries,  that  no  Japanese  should  leave  his 
country  on  any  pretence  whatever,  and  no  foreigner  be 
permitted  to  land  therein.  Prior  to  this  edict  the  Japanese 
had  been  enterprising  sailors  and  had  extended  their 
voyages  to  many  distant  lands.  What,  it  might  be  asked, 
was  the  reason  of  or  occasion  for  this  violent  change  in 
the  attitude  of  the  Japanese  to  Christianity  and  the  pre- 
sence of  Europeans  in  their  midst?  It  is  impossible,  at 
this  length  of  time,  to  arrive  at  a correct  answer  to  this 
question,  largely  mixed  up  as  it  has  been  with  the  odium, 
theologicuin.  We  have  been  told  that  the  result  was 
greatly  or  altogether  due  to  the  pride,  arrogance,  and 
avarice  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  ; to  the  pretensions 
of  the  Pope,  which  came  to  be  regarded  with  suspicion  by 
the  feudatory  princes  of  Japan,  as  also  to  the  cupidity 
and  cunning  of  the  traders.  How  far  any  or  all  of  these 
alleged  causes  were  responsible  for  the  change  in  Japanese 
opinion  I shall  not  venture  to  pronounce.  Suffice  it  to 
remark  that,  whatever  the  cause,  there  must  have  been 
some  powerful,  impelling  influence  at  work  to  induce  the 
nation  not  only  to  cast  out  the  stranger  within  its  gates, 
but  to  exclude  him  for  two  and  a half  centuries,  and  veto 
any  inhabitant  of  Japan  leaving  its  shores  and  thus  being 
brought  into  contact  with,  and  stand  the  chance  of  being 
contaminated  by,  the  foreigner.  We  may  regret  the 
destruction  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  but  at  the  same 
time  we  may,  I think,  accept  the  fact  that  the  uprising 
of  Japan  against  the  foreigner  at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century  was  simply  the  result  of  the  gorge  which 
had  arisen  in  the  nation  against  the  foreigner’s  manners, 
methods,  and  morals,  his  trampling  underfoot  of  national 
prejudices  and  ideas,  his  cupidity,  his  avarice,  his  cruelty, 
and  his  attempt  to  impose  on  Japanese  civilisation  a 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


5 


veneer  which  it  did  not  desire  and  deemed  it  was  much 
better  without.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  mission- 
aries and  the  traders  had  a common  nationality,  and  that 
the  Japan  of  the  sixteenth  century  did  not  find  it  possible 
to  differentiate  between  them. 

Down  to  the  nineteenth  century  we  have  to  rely  for  our 
knowledge  of  Japan  and  the  Japanese  on  the  narratives 
of  the  few  travellers  who  managed  to  visit  that  country 
more  or  less  by  stealth,  or  from  the  information  derived 
from  Europeans  serving  in  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki. 
Every  Englishman  has  heard  of  Will  Adams  and  his 
Japanese  wife,  but  though  his  career  was  romantic  and 
interesting  it  has  added  but  little  to  our  knowledge  of 
Japan  at  the  time  of  his  visit  thereto.  In  1727  Dr.  Kaem- 
fer’s  work  on  Japan  was  published.  Kaemfer  had  been 
physician  to  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki,  and,  accord- 
ingly, had  some  opportunities  of  studying  Japanese  life 
and  character.  His  book  in  the  original  form  is  rare,  but 
I am  glad  to  say  that  a cheap  edition,  a reprint  of  the 
English  edition  produced  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1727, 
has  recently  been  published  in  this  country.  Kaemfer’s 
work  is  spoiled  and  its  utility  or  reliability  largely  im- 
paired by  the  fanciful  theories  put  forward  by  the  author 
respecting  the  origin  of  the  Japanese.  Much  of  his  infor- 
mation is,  of  course,  mere  hearsay,  and  a great  deal  of  it, 
by  the  light  of  what  we  now  know,  is  not  only  mislead- 
ing but  nonsensical.  A considerable  amount  of  space 
is  devoted  by  Kaemfer  to  chimerical  animals,  and 
he  dilates  upon  the  awful  sanctity  that  surrounds  the 
person  of  the  Emperor.  “ There  is,”  he  remarks,  “ such 
a Holiness  ascribed  to  all  the  parts  of  his  Body  that  he 
dares  not  cut  off  neither  his  hair,  nor  his  beard,  nor  his 
nails.  However,  lest  he  should  grow  too  dirty,  they  may 


6 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


clean  him  in  the  night  when  he  is  asleep ; because  they 
say  that  what  is  taken  from  his  Body  at  that  time  had 
been  stolen  from  him,  and  that  such  a theft  does  not 
prejudice  his  Holiness  or  Dignity.”  In  a notice  of  this 
new  edition  of  Kaemfer’s  work  I have  seen  it  asserted 
that  the  book  is  the  foundation  of  nearly  all  that  was 
known  or  written  of  Japan  till  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
How  such  a statement  as  this  came  to  be  published  I 
quite  fail  to  comprehend.  There  was  plenty  of  literature 
in  reference  to  Japan  far  more  reliable  than  Kaemfer’s 
whimsical  “ yarns  ” at  a much  earlier  period  than  twenty- 
five  years  back.  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock’s  “ The  Capital  of 
the  Tycoon”  was,  I think,  published  in  1863.  Sir  Ruther- 
ford was  the  first  resident  British  Minister  in  Japan,  and 
his  book  remains  a stirring  and,  making  allowance  for  the 
author’s  prejudices  on  various  matters,  on  the  whole  a 
vivid  picture  of  Japan  as  it  was  in  the  early  sixties. 
Alcock’s  book  was  followed  by  many  others,  and  twenty- 
five  years  ago  the  world  was  so  far  from  being  dependent 
on  Kaemfer  for  its  knowledge  of  Japan  that,  as  I have 
said,  it  had  even  then  quite  a library  of  recent  and  reliable 
books  in  regard  to  that  country. 

Following  Kaemfer,  a little  later  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, a Swedish  physician,  Thunberg  by  name,  who  also 
had  been  attached  to  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki,  wrote 
a book  undoubtedly  interesting  and  of  great  value.  That 
country,  he  remarks,  is  “ in  many  respects  a singular 
country,  and  with  regard  to  customs  and  institutions 
totally  different  from  Europe,  or,  I had  almost  said, 
from  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Of  all  the  nations  that 
inhabit  the  three  largest  parts  of  the  globe,  the  Japanese 
deserve  to  rank  the  first,  and  to  be  compared  with  the 
Europeans ; and  although  in  many  points  they  must  yield 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


7 


the  palm  to  the  latter,  yet  in  various  other  respects  they 
may  with  great  justice  be  preferred  to  them.  Here, 
indeed,  as  well  as  in  other  countries,  are  found  both  useful 
and  pernicious  establishments,  both  rational  and  absurd 
institutions ; yet  still  we  must  admire  the  steadiness 
which  constitutes  the  national  character,  the  immutability 
which  reigns  in  the  administration  of  their  laws  and  in  the 
exercise  of  their  public  functions,  the  unwearied  assiduity 
of  this  nation  to  do  and  to  promote  what  is  useful,  and 
a hundred  other  things  of  a similar  nature.  That  so 
numerous  a people  as  this  should  love  so  ardently  and 
so  universally  (without  even  a single  exception  to  the 
contrary)  their  native  country,  their  Government,  and  each 
other — that  the  whole  country  should  be,  as  it  were, 
enclosed,  so  that  no  native  can  get  out,  nor  foreigner 
enter  in,  without  permission — that  their  laws  should  have 
remained  unaltered  for  several  thousand  years — and  that 
justice  should  be  administered  without  partiality  or  respect 
of  persons — that  the  Governments  can  neither  become 
despotic  nor  evade  the  laws  in  order  to  grant  pardons  or 
do  other  acts  of  mercy — that  the  monarch  and  all  his 
subjects  should  be  clad  alike  in  a particular  national  dress 
— that  no  fashions  should  be  adopted  from  abroad,  nor  new 
ones  invented  at  home— that  no  foreign  war  should  have 
been  waged  for  centuries  past — that  a great  variety  of 
religious  sects  should  live  in  peace  and  harmony  together 
— that  hunger  and  want  should  be  almost  unknown,  or  at 
least  known  but  seldom, — all  this  must  appear  improbable, 
and  to  many  as  impossible  as  it  is  strictly  true,  and 
deserving  of*the  utmost  attention.”  He  goes  on  to  say, 
“If  the  laws  in  this  country  are  rigid,  the  police  are 
equally  vigilant,  while  discipline  and  good  order  are 
scrupulously  observed.  The  happy  consequences  of  this 


8 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


are  extremely  visible  and  important,  for  hardly  any 
country  exhibits  fewer  instances  of  vice.  And  as  no 
respect  whatever  is  paid  to  persons,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  laws  preserve  their  pristine  and  original  purity,  with- 
out any  alterations,  explanations,  and  misconstructions, 
the  subjects  not  only  imbibe,  as  they  grow  up,  an  infallible 
knowledge  of  what  ought  or  ought  not  to  be  done,  but  are 
likewise  enlightened  by  the  example  and  irreproachable 
conduct  of  their  superiors  in  age. 

“ Most  crimes  are  punished  with  death — a sentence  which 
is  inflicted  with  less  regard  to  the  magnitude  of  the  crime 
than  to  the  audacity  of  the  attempt  to  transgress  the 
hallowed  laws  of  the  empire,  and  to  violate  justice,  which 
together  with  religion  they  consider  as  the  most  sacred 
things  in  the  whole  land.  Fines  and  pecuniary  mulcts 
they  regard  as  equally  repugnant  to  justice  and  reason,  as 
the  rich  are  thereby  freed  from  all  punishment — a pro- 
cedure which  to  them  appears  the  height  of  absurdity. 

“In  the  towns  it  often  happens  that  the  inhabitants  of 
a whole  street  are  made  to  suffer  for  the  malpractice  of  a 
single  individual,  the  master  of  a house  for  the  faults  of 
his  domestics,  and  parents  for  those  of  their  children,  in 
proportion  to  the  share  they  may  have  had  in  the  trans- 
action. In  Europe,  which  boasts  a purer  religion  and  a 
more  enlightened  philosophy,  we  very  rarely  see  those 
punished  who  have  debauched  and  seduced  others,  never 
see  parents  and  relatives  made  to  suffer  for  neglecting  the 
education  of  their  children  and  kindred,  at  the  same  time 
that  these  heathens  see  the  justice  and  propriety  of  such 
punishment.”  Dealing  with  agriculture,  the  Swedish 
physician  remarked  : “ Agriculture  is  in  the  highest  esteem 
with  the  Japanese,  insomuch  that  (the  most  barren  and  un- 
tractable  mountains  excepted)  one  sees  here  the  surface  of 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


9 


the  earth  cultivated  all  over  the  country,  and  most  of  the 
mountains  and  hills  up  to  their  very  tops.  Neither  rewards 
nor  encouragements  are  necessary  in  a country  where  the 
tillers  of  the  ground  are  considered  as  the  most  useful 
class  of  citizens  and  where  they  do  not  groan  under 
various  oppressions,  which  in  other  countries  have  hindered, 
and  ever  must  hinder,  the  progress  of  agriculture.  The 
duties  paid  by  the  farmer  of  his  corn  in  kind  are  indeed 
very  heavy,  but  in  other  respects  he  cultivates  his  land 
with  greater  freedom  than  the  lord  of  a manor  in  Sweden. 
He  is  not  hindered  two  days  together  at  a time,  in  conse- 
quence of  furnishing  relays  of  horses,  by  which  he  perhaps 
earns  a groat  and  often  returns  with  the  loss  of  his  horses; 
he  is  not  dragged  from  his  field  and  plough  to  transport  a 
prisoner  or  a deserter  to  the  next  castle  ; nor  are  his  time 
and  property  wasted  in  making  roads,  building  bridges, 
almshouses,  parsonage-houses,  and  magazines.  He  knows 
nothing  of  the  impediments  and  inconveniences  which 
attend  the  maintenance  and  equipments  of  horses  and  foot 
soldiers.  And  what  contributes  still  more  to  his  happiness, 
and  leaves  sufficient  scope  for  his  industry  in  cultivating 
his  land  is  this — that  he  has  only  one  master,  viz.,  his  feudal 
lord,  without  being  under  the  commands  of  a host  of 
masters,  as  with  us.  No  parcelling  out  of  the  land  forbids 
him  to  improve  to  the  least  advantage  the  portion  he  pos- 
sesses, and  no  right  of  commonage,  belonging  to  many, 
prevents  each  from  deriving  profit  from  his  share.  All  are 
bound  to  cultivate  their  land,  and  if  a husbandman  cannot 
annually  cultivate  a certain  portion  of  his  fields  he  forfeits 
them,  and  another  who  can  is  at  liberty  to  cultivate  them. 
Meadows  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  whole  country  ; on 
the  contrary,  every  spot  of  ground  is  made  use  of  either 
for  corn-fields  or  else  for  plantations  of  esculent-rooted 


10 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


vegetables : so  that  the  land  is  neither  wasted  upon 
extensive  meadows  for  the  support  of  cattle  and  saddle- 
horses,  nor  upon  large  and  unprofitable  plantations  of 
tobacco  ; nor  is  it  sown  with  seed  for  any  other  still  less 
necessary  purpose ; which  is  the  reason  that  the  whole 
country  is  very  thickly  inhabited  and  populous,  and  can 
without  difficulty  give  maintenance  to  all  its  innumerable 
inhabitants.” 

Let  us  now  take  a step,  a long  step,  forward  in  time 
from  the  Swedish  physician  relating  his  impressions  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  to  an  American  in  the  eighteenth 
century  delivering  his  opinions  on  Japan  and  the  Japanese 
as  viewed  from  the  American  standpoint  at  that  period. 
“The  sitter  is  the  same,  and,  what  is  more,  he  sits  on  his 
heels  to-day  just  as  his  grandfather  did  to  Thunberg,  yet 
it  is  hard  to  see  any  points  of  resemblance — a lesson  to  all 
theologians  and  politicians  who  still  indulge  the  dreams  that 
uniformity  of  opinion  on  the  plainest  matters  of  fact  and 
observation  can  ever  be  attained  among  men,  however 
honest  and  conscientious  they  may  be  in  their  efforts  after 
unity.  The  Chinese  proverb  with  more  wisdom  declares, 
‘Truth  is  one,  but  opinions  are  many.’ 

“ All  officials  serve  in  pairs,  as  spies  upon  each  other, 
and  this  pervades  the  entire  polity  of  Japan.  It  is  a 
government  of  espionage.  Everybody  is  watched.  No 
man  knows  who  are  the  secret  spies  around  him,  even 
though  he  may  be  and  is  acquainted  with  those  that  are 
official.  The  emperors  themselves  are  not  exempt ; 
governors,  grand  councillors,  vassal  princes,  all  are  under 
the  eye  of  an  everlasting  unknown  police.  This  wretched 
system  is  even  extended  to  the  humblest  of  the  citizens. 
Every  town  is  divided  into  collections  of  five  families,  and 
every  member  of  such  a division  is  personally  responsible 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


11 


for  the  conduct  of  the  others  ; everything  which  occurs, 
therefore,  out  of  the  ordinary  course  in  any  one  of  these  is 
instantly  reported  by  the  other  four  to  save  themselves 
from  censure.  The  Ziogoon  (Tycoon)  has  his  minions 
about  the  Mikado  and  the  Grand  Council  have  theirs  about 
the  Ziogoon.  And  the  cowardice  engendered  by  such 
ceaseless  distrust  necessarily  leads  to  cruelty  in  penalties. 
When  an  official  has  offended,  or  even  when  in  his 
department  there  has  been  any  violation  of  law,  although 
beyond  his  power  of  prevention,  so  sure  is  he  of  the 
punishment  of  death,  that  he  anticipates  it  by  ripping  up 
his  own  body  rather  than  be  delivered  over  to  the 
executioner  and  entailing  disgrace  and  ruin  on  all  his 
family.  There  cannot  under  such  a system  be  anything 
like  judicious  legislation  founded  on  enquiry  and  adapted 
to  the  ever-varying  circumstances  of  life.  As  Government 
functionaries  they  lie  and  practise  artifice  to  save  them- 
selves from  condemnation  by  the  higher  powers ; it  is 
their  vocation.  As  private  gentlemen  they  are  frank, 
truthful,  and  hospitable.” 

Taking  a further  step  and  coming  down  to  the  year 
1877,  I have  before  me,  as  I write,  the  private  letter  of  a 
naval  officer  of  an  impressionable  age  visiting  Japan  for 
the  first  time  and  giving  his  opinions  thereof,  at  a period 
when  Japan  was  just  beginning  to  feel  really  at  work 
the  distinct  influences  of  estern  civilisation — the  begin- 
ning, in  fact,  of  the  extraordinary  metamorphosis  which 
has  been  witnessed  of  recent  years.  He  remarks  : “ Prob- 
ably to  the  traveller  seeking  the  marvellous  and  desiring 
the  beautiful,  there  is  no  more  interesting  country  to  pay  a 
visit  to  than  Japan.  In  something  under  a decade  that 
country  astonished,  and,  at  first,  rather  amused  the  civilised 
world  by  emerging  from  the  acme  of  barbarism  to  the 


12 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


extremes  of  civilisation.  It  was  but  a very  few  years  ago 
that  a foreigner  could  not  land  in  the  country  unless 
accompanied  by  a Government  escort.  But  now  that  is 
all  changed.  The  foreigner  is  welcomed,  his  habits  and 
religion  are  not  alone  tolerated  but  respected  ; his  dress  is 
copied  'to  an  extreme  that  indeed  proves  imitation  to  be 
the  sincerest  flattery,  and  but  for  the  olive  complexion, 
flat  nose  and  dark  hair,  a Japanese  gentleman  of  the  period 
is  very  little  different  from  his  English  contemporary. 
There  is  a tendency  I find  among  a good  many  persons, 
whose  ideas  on  the  subject  of  race  and  geography  are 
slightly  mixed,  to  confound  the  Japanese  with  the  Chinese, 
and  to  imagine  that  the  two  names  indicate  no  greater 
difference  than  at  present  exist  between  an  Englishman 
and  an  Irishman.  The  fact,  however,  is  that  a greater 
difiference*exists  among  these  two  nationalities  than  can  be 
either  imagined  or  described,  and,  considering  their  con- 
tiguity, it  is  indeed  surprising  that  they  have  scarcely 
a habit  or  a pursuit  in  common.  The  mind  of  the  modern 
Japanese  is  progressive  and  acquisitive.  The  mind  of  the 
Chinaman  of  the  nineteenth  century,  as  far  as  he  allows  it 
to  be  seen,  is  as  torpid  and  retrogressive  as  his  ancestors 
of  the  Confucian  period. 

“Up  to  the  year  1868  Japan  was  governed  jointly  by  a 
Tycoon  and  a Mikado  together  with  a council  of  the 
Daimios,  or  great  feudal  princes,  in  whose  hands  all  real 
power  rested.  The  spiritual  sovereign  was  the  Mikado, 
nominally  the  chief  ruler,  the  Tycoon  being  considered  his 
first  subject.  All  enactments  required  his  sanction.  The 
office  of  the  Tycoon  was  hereditary  and  he  gradually 
absorbed  all  the  powers  of  the  State.  In  1868  a revolution 
occurred  which  culminated  in  the  overthrow  of  the  spiritual 
head  and  the  seating  of  the  Tycoon  on  the  throne  as  an 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


13 


hereditary  prince  with  the  title  of  Mikado.  There  is  now 
no  such  person  as  a Tycoon  in  Japan.  The  insurrection 
of  1868  also  saw  the  downfall  of  the  Daimios  or  feudal 
princes  of  Japan.  These  princes  had  each  standing  armies 
of  their  own,  and  administered  justice  in  their  own  terri- 
tories. Their  retainers  were  the  famous  two-sworded  men 
so  long  a terror  to  Europeans,  and  who  strongly  objected 
to  any  intercourse  with  foreigners,  probably  foreseeing  its 
inevitable  result.  In  1868  the  whole  of  these  ferocious 
men  were  disarmed,  and  a standing  army  modelled  on  the 
French  fashion  established  for  the  defence  of  the  Empire. 
The  Japanese  Navy  was  organised  about  the  same  time  by 
an  English  officer,  and  at  first  consisted  of  a few  obsolete 
American  and  English  men-of-war.  That,  however,  is 
now  a thing  of  the  past,  the  Japanese  Government  having 
during  the  past  few  years  spent  many  millions  in  purchasing 
modern  ironclads  and  other  vessels  of  the  most  approved 
type,  and  the  Japanese  Navy  bids  fair  before  long  to  become 
a power  in  the  Far  East. 

“Concerning  the  oft-debated  question  of  Japanese 
morality  I can  say  little.  Their  ideas  on  the  subject  are, 
to  put  it  mildly,  somewhat  lax,  and  would  no  doubt  shock 
any  one  strongly  imbued  with  morality  as  it  is  in  vogue 
(theoretically)  in  European  countries.  That  there  is  not 
that  privacy  between  the  sexes  which  prevails  in  other 
countries  may  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  men  and 
women  make  their  ablutions  together  in  the  public  wash- 
houses. Nevertheless  the  Japanese  have  a code  of  morality 
peculiar  to  themselves,  and  any  infidelity  on  the  part  of  a 
woman  to  her  husband  is  punished  with  severity. 

“ The  great  drawback  to  the  prosperity  of  Japan  is  a 
matter  that  prevails  in  some  more  ancient  civilised  lands, 
viz.,  an  enormous  issue  of  paper-money.  Young  Japan, 


14 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


finding  it  easy  to  print  notes  to  pay  its  obligations,  printed 
them  to  the  extent  of  twenty  millions  sterling  in  all  sizes 
from  5 cents  to  lOO  dollars.  The  consequence  is  that  this 
paper-money  has  depreciated  in  value  to  the  extent  of 
15  per  cent.  The  Government,  however,  have  seen  their 
mistake,  and  are  gradually  calling  it  in,  and  have  established 
a very  fine  mint  with  a gold  and  silver  coinage.  Insurrec- 
tions have  also  been  a drag  on  Japan  in  its  progress.  The 
Prince  of  Satsuma,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  ancient 
Daimios,  has  never  acknowledged  the  present  system  of 
government  and  has  periodically  rebelled  against  it.  This 
year  a serious  rebellion  broke  out  at  Kagoshima,  and  was 
not  quelled  without  great  loss  of  life  and  a heavy  expendi- 
ture. His  followers  behaved  with  great  fanaticism,  many 
of  them  loading  themselves  with  gunpowder  rushing  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy  and  setting  fire  to  the  powder, 
killing  themselves  by  so  doing,  but  also,  to  the  admiration 
of  their  less  ardent  comrades,  killing  numbers  of  the 
enemy. 

“Against  no  ancient  custom  has  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment more  set  its  face  than  tattooing.  Any  persons  in 
Japan  now  either  allowing  themselves  to  be  tattooed  or 
performing  the  operation  on  any  one  else  are  liable  to 
imprisonment.  Blacking  the  teeth,  a custom  prevalent 
among  the  women  on  being  married,  is  rapidly  dying  out, 
being  discouraged  by  the  authorities.” 

The  glimpses  of  Japan  shown  us  by  Thunberg  and  the 
American  I have  quoted  prove  clearly  enough,  even  were 
it  not  amplified  by  a host  of  other  testimony  I have  not 
space  to  refer  to,  that  the  Japan  of  the  sixteenth,  seven- 
teenth, eighteenth,  and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
centuries  was  a highly  civilised  country  in  which  law  and 
order  reigned  supreme,  where  respect  for  authority  was 


A GLIMPSE  AT  THE  PAST 


15 


marked,  the  standard  of  comfort,  if  not  high,  was  at 
any  rate  sufficient,  the  domestic  relations  and  family  life 
were  almost  ideal,  clean  living  was  the  custom,  crime  was 
at  a minimum,  education  was  universal,  amusements  were 
plentiful,  the  artistic  feeling  and  instincts  were  not  the  cult 
of  a class  but  were  shared  by  the  common  people.  This 
was  the  nation,  self-contained  and  self-satisfied,  that  some 
persons,  like  the  young  naval  officer  from  whom  I have 
quoted,  gravely  affirm  to  have  been  steeped  in  barbarism 
until  it  came  under  Western  influences  and  went  in  for 
frock-coats  and  silk  hats  for  the  men,  Paris  costumes  for 
the  women,  and  an  Army  and  Navy  on  European  lines.  If 
these  be  the  factors  which  constitute  civilisation  I admit 
that  Japan  has  only  recently  been  civilised.  Being  of 
opinion,  however,  that  civilisation  does  not  consist  in  cos- 
tumery,  but  is  a refining  and  educating  influence,  I prefer 
to  regard  Japan  as  a country  of  more  ancient  civilisation 
than  Great  Britain,  which  has  of  recent  years  determined 
to  tack  on  to  that  civilisation  some  Western  manners  and 
customs  and  facilities.  Many  of  Japan’s  greatest  thinkers, 
a few  Western  philosophers  who  can  look  beyond  a 
costume,  the  telegraph  or  the  telephone,  are  strongly  of 
opinion  that  in  the  process  of  modern  development  Japan 
has  not  improved  either  morally  or  materially,  and  that, 
regarded  through  the  dry  light  of  philosophy,  her  preten- 
sions to  be  considered  a highly  civilised  nation  were 
greater  half  a century  back  than  they  are  at  the  present 
moment.  Upon  that  matter  my  readers  must  form  their 
own  opinion.  It  is  a question,  the  answer  to  which  largely 
depends  upon  the  point  of  view  from  which  it  is  regarded 
and  the  factors  taken  into  or  left  out  of  account. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  Meiji  (1868)  the  Emperor,  in  an 
edict,  laid  down  clearly  and  concisely  the  lines  on  which 


16 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


he  and  his  advisers  had  determined  that  Japan  should  for 
the  future  be  governed.  “ The  old  uncivilised  way  shall 
be  replaced  by  the  eternal  principles  of  the  universe,” 
“ The  best  knowledge  shall  be  sought  throughout  the 
world  so  as  to  promote  the  imperial  welfare.”  “ The 
eternal  principles  of  the  universe  ” is  a resonant  phrase 
needing  interpretation.  The  rulers  of  Japan  to-day,  if  they 
were  interrogated  on  the  subject,  would  probably  reply  that 
the  record  of  Japan  for  over  thirty-eight  years  past  is  the 
practical  interpretation  of  the  Emperor’s  cryptic  utterance. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  the  ink  was  hardly  dry  on  the  Imperial 
edict  before  Japan  laid  herself  out  with  earnestness,  not  to 
say  enthusiasm,  to  carry  into  effect  the  principles  enunciated 
in  the  edict.  The  whole  country  was  quickly  in  a positive 
ferment  of  energy.  The  brightest  intellects  among  its 
youth  were  despatched  to  foreign  lands  to  acquire  know- 
ledge and  wisdom  to  be  applied  at  home  in  due  course, 
education  was  taken  in  hand,  so  also  was  the  reorganisation 
of  the  Army  and  Navy,  and  railways,  telegraphs,  and  various 
other  accessories  of  European  civilisation  were  introduced 
into  the  country.  Japan,  in  a word,  became  quickly  trans- 
formed and,  being  unable  any  longer  to  keep  the  foreigner 
out,  she  determined  to  utilise  him  and  in  the  future  fight 
him,  should  fighting  be  necessary,  with  his  own  weapons, 
intellectual  rather  than  material,  but  not  omitting  the 
material.  Thirty-eight  years  and  more  have  elapsed  since 
the  issue  of  the  Imperial  edict  referred  to,  and  this  book  is 
designed  to  show  what  results  have  flowed  therefrom, 
along  what  lines  the  development  of  Japan  has  proceeded, 
and  what  are  the  position  and  prospects  of  that  country 
to-day. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  COUNTRY — ITS  PHYSICAL  FEATURES — PRODUCTS — 
FAUNA— FLORA,  ETC. 

HE  Empire  of  Japan  (a  corruption  of  Nippon,  the 


native  name)  is  composed  of  four  large  islands — 
Honshiu,  Shikoku,  Kiusiu,  and  Yesso,  besides  some 
thousands  of  smaller  isles.  The  Kurile  Isles,  north  of 
Yesso,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kamschatka,  have 
been  incorporated  in  the  Empire  since  1875,  and  the  Loo- 
Choo  Islands,  some  500  miles  south-west  of  Japan’s 
southern  extremity,  since  1876.  The  great  island  of 
Formosa,  situated  off  the  coast  of  China,  was  ceded  to 
Japan  as  the  outcome  of  the  Chino- Japanese  War  in  1895, 
while  as  the  result  of  the  recent  conflict  with  Russia,  Japan 
has  obtained  back  the  southern  half  of  the  large  island  of 
Sakhalin,  which  formerly  entirely  belonged  to  her,  as  well 
as  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny  on  the  mainland,  not  to  speak 
of  the  preponderating  influence  she  has  obtained  in  Korea, 
which  is  now  practically  under  the  suzerainty  of  Japan. 
The  population  of  the  Empire  according  to  the  last  census 
was  about  forty-seven  millions,  and,  like  that  of  Great 
Britain,  it  is  annually  increasing.  The  proximity  of  Japan 
to  the  Asiatic  Continent,  despite  the  lessons  in  geography 
which  the  late  war  afforded,  is  not,  I think,  generally 

C 17 


18 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


understood.  The  nearest  point  of  the  Japanese  coast 
is  only  loo  miles  distant  from  Korea,  while  between 
the  two  lies  the  important  island  of  Tsu-shima,  which 
Japan  found  so  useful  as  a strategic  position  during  the 
war  with  Russia.  The  island  of  Sakhalin,  the  southern 
portion  of  which,  as  I have  said,  has  lately  passed  into  the 
possession  of  Japan,  is  about  20  miles  distant  from  the 
northern  part  of  Yesso,  while  at  some  places  the  island 
is  only  separated  from  the  Russian  mainland  by  5 or  6 
miles  of  water.  The  distance  between  Hakodate,  in  Yesso, 
and  the  great  Russian  port  of  Vladivostock  is  somewhere 
about  200  miles.  This  contiguity  of  Japan  to  the  Asiatic 
Continent  has  already  had  a marked  effect  on  the  politics 
of  the  world,  and  in  the  future,  if  I mistake  not,  is  likely 
to  be  a preponderating  factor  therein.  The  area  of  Japan 
is  about  half  as  large  again  as  that  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  southern  extremity  of  the  country  is  in  latitude  31°  N., 
the  northern  in  latitude  45^°  N. 

The  Japanese  islands  are  undoubtedly  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  many  of  the  volcanoes  in  the  country  are  still  more  or 
less  active.  The  general  conformation  of  the  land  leads 
one  to  suppose  that  the  islands  are  the  summits  of  mountain 
ranges  which  some  thousands  of  years  back  had  their  bases 
submerged  by  the  rising  of  the  sea  or  else  had  by  degrees 
settled  down  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  The  general 
characteristic  of  the  country  is  mountainous,  and  only 
about  one-sixth  of  the  total  area  is  in  cultivation.  Fuji- 
yama, the  loftiest  mountain,  for  which  the  Japanese  have 
a peculiar  veneration  and  which  has  been  immortalised  in 
the  art  of  the  country,  has  an  altitude  of  12,730  feet.  The 
next  in  height.  Mount  Mitake,  ascends  some  9,000  feet, 
and  there  are  many  others  of  5,000  feet  or  more.  Japan 
has  from  time  to  time  been  ravaged  by,  and  indeed  still  is 


THE  COUNTRY 


19 


subject  to,  terrible  earthquakes.  These  dire  calamities 
seem  to  recur  at  regular  intervals.  The  Japanese  islands 
appear  to  be  in  the  centre  of  great  volcanic  disturbances — a 
fact  which  probably  accounts  for  those  seismic  outbreaks 
which  periodically  devastate  considerable  tracts  of  the 
country  and  cause  tremendous  havoc  to  life  and  property. 
The  written  records,  extending  back  some  1,400  or  1,500 
years,  clearly  prove  that  earthquakes  even  more  terrible  in 
their  effects  than  any  that  have  taken  place  in  recent  times 
were  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  is,"of  course,  possible  that 
these  records  may  be  inaccurate  or  have  been  largely 
exaggerated,  but  they  at  any  rate  tend  to  show  that  those 
great  cosmic  forces  which  are  popularly  termed  earthquakes 
have  been  constantly  at  work  in  Japan  ever  since  any 
written  records  have  been  preserved  and  no  doubt  long 
anterior  to  that  time. 

As  the  islands  are  narrow  and  mountainous  there  are  no 
great  rivers  and  none  available  for  important  navigation. 
None  of  the  rivers  exceed  200  miles  in  length.  Although 
Japan  is  situated  much  further  south  than  Great  Britain, 
its  northern  extremity  being  in  about  the  same  latitude  as 
Cornwall,  its  climate  is,  on  the  whole,  not  unlike  that  of 
this  country.  Of  course  the  climate  of  such  a mountainous 
country  and  one  extending  over  14  degrees  of  latitude 
varies  considerably.  That  of  the  island  of  Yesso,  for 
example,  is  in  winter  rigorous  to  a degree,  a fact  in  some 
measure  caused  by  a cold  current  which  flows  down  its 
eastern  shores  from  the  Sea  of  Okohotsk.  Professor  Rein, 
who  has  given  great  attention  to  the  matter  of  the  Japanese 
climate,  has  remarked  in  reference  thereto : “ The  climate 
of  Japan  reflects  the  characteristics  of  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring continent,  and  exhibits  like  that  two  great  annual 
contrasts — a hot,  damp  summer  and  a cold  relatively  dry 


20 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


winter;  these  two  seasons  lie  under  the  sway  of  the 
monsoons,  but  the  neighbouring  seas  weaken  the  effects  of 
these  winds  and  mitigate  their  extremes  in  such  a manner 
that  neither  the  summer  heat  nor  the  cold  of  winter  attain 
the  same  height  in  Japan  as  in  China  at  the  same  latitudes. 
Spring  and  autumn  are  extremely  agreeable  seasons ; the 
oppressive  summer  heat  does  not  last  long,  and  in  winter 
the  contrast  between  the  nightly  frosts  and  the  midday 
heat,  produced  by  considerable  insulation  but  still  more  by 
the  raw  northerly  winds,  causes  frequent  chills,  though  the 
prevailing  bright  sky  makes  the  season  of  the  year  much 
more  endurable  than  in  many  other  regions  where  the 
winter  cold  is  equal.  As  a fact  the  climate  of  Japan 
agrees  very  well  with  most  Europeans,  so  that  people  have 
already  begun  to  look  upon  certain  localities  as  climatic 
watering-places  where  the  inhabitant  of  Hong  Kong  and 
Shanghai  can  find  refuge  from  the  oppressive  heat  of 
summer  and  invigorate  his  health.” 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Tokio  is  about  56°. 
The  lowest  temperature  is  in  January  or  February,  when 
the  thermometer  seldom  falls  below  25°,  the  highest  in 
August,  when  it  sometimes  rises  to  95°  or  100°  in  the 
shade,  the  average  being  82°  The  Japanese  suffer  a good 
deal  from  the  effects  of  the  wintry  weather,  bronchial, 
chest,  and  rheumatic  affections  being  prevalent.  The 
dwellings  of  the  people,  somewhat  flimsy  in  construction 
as  they  are,  are  not  well  adapted  to  withstand  the  effects 
of  a low  temperature.  On  the  whole  the  people  must  be 
pronounced  to  be  extremely  healthy — a fact  probably  due 
to  their  scrupulous  cleanliness,  to  the  excellent  ventilation 
of  their  houses,  and,  as  regards  those  living  in  the  towns, 
to  the  wide  and  well-kept  streets  where  nothing  offensive 
is  allowed  to  remain.  The  country  has,  however,  from 


THE  COUNTRY 


21 


time  to  time  been  subject  to  epidemics  introduced  from 
without,  cholera  and  the  plague  having  more  than  once 
carried  death  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land. 

Those  circular  storms  known  as  cyclones  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  typhoons  in  further  Eastern  seas  have  from  time 
to  time  wrought  great  devastation  in  Japan.  Fortunately 
these  revolving  storms  are  of  brief  duration,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Japan  they  do  not  so  frequently  occur 
as  in  the  China  Sea. 

Japan  is  well  provided  with  good  harbours,  that  of 
Nagasaki  in  especial  being  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
Sheltered  completely  by  lofty  and  beautiful  hills,  with 
deep  water  throughout,  it  is  an  ideal  anchorage.  Until 
recently  foreign  trade  was  confined  to  the  treaty  ports  ; 
but  as  the  country  has  now  been  completely  thrown  open, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  many  fine  harbours  which  Japan 
possesses,  and  which  so  far  have  hardly  been  utilised  at  all, 
will  in  due  course  become  the  centres  of  great  commercial 
activity.  The  Inland  Sea — the  beautiful  Mediterranean  of 
Japan — abounds  with  excellent  anchorages,  most  of  which 
have  hitherto  been  only  entered  by  an  occasional  junk. 

Regarding  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country,  it  is  im- 
possible to  speak  with  any  precision.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  Revolution  of  1868  that  the  mining  industry 
assumed  importance  in  Japan.  At  first  the  Government 
itself  owned  several  mines,  but  these  were  not  financially 
successful,  and  they  were  after  a time  disposed  of  to  private 
owners.  The  old  mining  regulations  have  recently  been 
superseded  by  a new  mining  law.  In  accordance  with  this 
the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  is  the  official 
who  permits,  approves,  cancels,  or  suspends  the  right  of 
mining,  whether  permanently  or  on  trial.  I may,  however. 


22 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


at  once  remark  that  the  Japanese  Government  has  not 
up  to  the  present  held  out  much  encouragement  to  the 
speculative  prospector.  Gold  is  believed  to  exist  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  Yesso,  and  as  a matter  of  fact, 
although  the  amount  mined  is  still  small,  it  is  annually 
increasing.  Coal  is  abundant  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  and  the  mines  are  extensively  worked.  In  1903 
there  were  over  ten  million  tons  of  coal  produced,  and  the 
quantity  is  at  the  present  time  assuredly  very  much  greater. 
The  coal  is  not  of  such  a good  quality  as  either  Welsh  or 
North  Country,  but  there  is  a large  and  growing  demand 
for  it  in  the  East,  and  coal  is  undoubtedly  a highly  im- 
portant part  of  Japan’s  latent  wealth.  Copper,  a metal 
which  is  in  increasing  demand,  exists  in  Japan  in  enormous 
quantities,  and  she  promises  at  no  very  far-distant  date  to 
be  the  chief  copper-producing  country  of  the  world.  Iron 
and  sulphur  are  also  found,  and  there  are  many  other 
minerals,  some  of  which  are  more  or  less  worked.  The 
Japanese  Mining  Law,  it  may  be  interesting  to  relate,  recog- 
nises the  following  minerals  and  mineral  ores,  which  may 
accordingly  be  taken  as  existing  in  the  country : Gold, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  hematite,  antimony,  quicksilver,  zinc, 
iron,  manganese  and  arsenic,  plumbago,  coal,  kerosene, 
sulphur,  bismuth,  phosphorus,  peat. 

Whatever  the  mineral  wealth  of  Japan — and  the  extent 
and  variety  thereof  are  probably  yet  not  fully  realised — 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  value  of  its  aboreal  pro- 
ducts. The  lacquer-tree  {rhus  vernicifera),  which  furnishes 
the  well-known  Japanese  lacquer,  the  paper  mulberry,  the 
elm,  oak,  maple,  bamboo,  camphor,  and  many  other  descrip- 
tions of  trees,  grow  in  abundance.  The  forests  of  Japan 
cover  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  land.  For  some  years  after 
the  Revolution  there  was  a reduction  in  the  wooded  area. 


THE  COUNTRY 


23 


nearly  four  million  acres  having  been  cleared  for  occupa- 
tion. Of  late  years,  however,  forestry  has  been  scientifically 
taken  in  hand,  and  about  one  and  a half  million  acres  have 
been  replanted  in  districts  which  have  not  been  found  suit- 
able for  farming.  The  climate  of  Japan  varies  so  greatly 
that  there  is  a corresponding  variety  in  its  trees.  About 
eight  hundred  kinds  of  forest  trees  are  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion in  Japan,  varying  from  the  palm  and  the  bamboo  to  the 
fir  and  many  other  trees  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  this 
country. 

The  Japanese  are  above  all  things  an  agricultural  people. 
The  tobacco  plant,  the  tea  shrub,  potatoes,  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  millet,  cotton,  rape,  and  many  cereals  other  than 
those  I have  mentioned  are  extensively  cultivated.  The 
great  mass  of  the  people  of  Japan  live  on  the  land,  and 
though  I think  the  tendency,  as  in  Great  Britain,  is  for  the 
large  towns  to  magnetically  draw  the  dwellers  in  the 
country,  nevertheless  agriculture  is  still  held  in  high  esteem, 
and  the  peasant  is  content  to  dwell  on  the  land  and  live  by 
it.  Rice  is  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  and  it  is  grown 
everywhere  ; indeed  the  yearly  harvest  of  it  affects  the 
Japanese  economy  quite  as  much  as,  if  not  even  more  than, 
the  wheat  crop  does  that  of  Europe.  The  Japanese  peasant 
is  almost  as  dependent  on  rice  as  the  Irish  peasant  used  to 
be  on  potatoes.  The  water,  so  necessary  for  irrigating  the 
land,  is  supplied  by  the  streams  and  rivulets  which  are 
plentiful  in  the  country.  The  Japanese  agriculturist  has 
long  been  famous  for  the  admirable  manner  in  which  he 
keeps  and  tills  his  farm.  The  fields  are  clean  as  regards 
weeds,  and  order  and  neatness  are  perceptible  everywhere. 
The  labour  is  almost  entirely  manual,  and  men,  women, 
and  children  all  take  part  in  the  work. 

Fruit  is  abundant  in  Japan,  but  it  is  for  the  most  part 


24 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  an  inferior  quality.  Grapes,  apples,  pears,  plums, 
peaches,  chestnuts,  persimmons,  oranges,  figs,  lemons, 
citrons,  melons,  and  wild  strawberries  are  all  grown,  but 
except  as  regards  the  grapes  I cannot  speak  in  laudatory 
terms  of  Japanese  fruit.  The  flowers  of  many  fruit  trees 
seem  more  appreciated  than  the  fruit  itself. 

The  floral  kingdom  is  rich,  beautiful  and  varied.  Prob- 
bably  in  no  other  part  of  the  world  are  flowers  so  greatly 
appreciated  as  in  Japan.  They  enter  largely  into  various 
popular  festivals.  The  Japanese,  as  most  people  know, 
excel  in  the  art  of  gardening  and  the  dwarfing  of  trees  and 
shrubs.  The  flower  vendor  is  a familiar  sight,  and  there  is 
never  any  lack  of  buyers.  The  poorest  householder  will 
do  without  anything  almost  rather  than  deprive  himself  of 
flowers.  These  enter  largely  into  the  religious  services  of 
the'  people,  and  are  also  extensively  placed  on  the  graves 
of  the  departed.  Flowers,  indeed,  play  an  important  part 
in  the  lives  of  the  Japanese.  Japan  has  long  been  famous 
for  the  great  number  of  its  evergreens.  A large  number 
of  the  plants  growing  wild  are  of  this  class,  so  that  even 
in  winter  the  land  has  not  the  bare  appearance  charac- 
teristic of  European  countries  at  that  time  of  the  year. 
Coniferous  plants  are  abundant,  many  of  them  being 
peculiar  to  Japan. 

The  coasts  abound  with  fish  of  an  excellent  quality,  and 
this,  with  rice,  forms  the  staple  diet  of  the  people.  Tea  is, 
as  I have  said,  largely  cultivated,  and  indeed  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  national  beverage.  It  has  been  cultivated 
in  the  country  for  over  two  thousand  years.  It  is  an 
article  of  faith  in  Japan  that  tea  strengthens  the  body.  It 
is  drunk  everywhere  and  at  all  times,  without  either  milk 
or  sugar — the  true  way,  I think,  in  which  to  appreciate 
its  flavour.  The  tea-house  in  Japan  occupies  the  same 


THE  COUNTRY 


25 


position  as  the  public-house  in  this  country,  but  it  has 
many  advantages  over  the  latter.  In  the  towns  and  some 
other  parts  of  Japan,  sake — a spirit  distilled  from  rice — is 
drunk,  and  when  the  Japanese  has  to  any  extent  been 
Europeanised  or  brought  into  contact  with  Europeans,  he 
affects  a taste  for  European  varieties  of  alcohol.  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  people  are  distinctly  a sober  race. 

The  principal  towns  are  Tokio,  the  capital,  with  a 
population  of  about  one  and  half  millions,  Osaka,  having 
a population  nearly  as  great,  Kyoto,  the  ancient  capital, 
Nagoya,  Kobe,  Yokohama,  and  Nagasaki.  Yokohama  may 
be  regarded  as  the  European  headquarters ; indeed  it  is 
largely  a European  town,  while  Nagasaki  has  more  than 
any  other  been  under  European  influences,  the  Dutch 
having,  as  I have  already  stated,  had  a factory  there,  in  the 
suburb  of  Decima,  continuously  ever  since  the  expulsion 
of  foreigners  from  the  country  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Railway  communication  in  Japan  is  a subject  upon 
which  much  might  be  written.  For  many  years  there  was 
only  one  line  in  the  country — that  between  Yokohama  and 
Tokio,  about  22  miles  in  length.  At  the  present  time  there 
are  some  4,500  miles  of  railway  open,  and  extensions  are 
either  in  progress  or  in  contemplation.  Of  the  lines  now 
being  worked,  about  one-third  are  the  property  of  the 
Government,  the  rest  having  been  constructed  by  private 
enterprise.  This  dual  system  of  ownership  has  its  disad- 
vantages, and  it  will  doubtless  not  be  permitted  to  last. 
Railway  construction  has  already  had  a considerable  effect 
on  the  opening  up  of  the  country,  and  as  the  construction 
is  extended  the  development  of  Japan  will  doubtless 
proceed  in  an  increasing  ratio. 

The  scenery  of  Japan  has  provided  a theme  for  so  many 
pens  that  I do  not  feel  inclined  to  do  more  than  refer  to  it 


26 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


in  passing.  Much  of  the  scenery  is  sublime  but,  truth  to 
tell,  its  beauty,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
the  effect  thereof  on  the  sightseer,  has  been  somewhat 
marred  of  recent  years  by  the  influx  of  those  persons 
colloquially  known  as  “ globe  trotters,”  the  railway  exten- 
sions to  which  I have  referred,  and  the  erection  of  large 
hotels  run  on  European  lines.  Nikko,  the  incomparable, 
with  its  glorious  scenery  and  its  still  more  glorious  temples, 
the  meandering  Daynogawa,  the  beauteous  Lake  Chiuzenji, 
on  which  a quarter  of  a century  or  so  ago  a European 
provided  with  a passport  and  having  his  headquarters  at 
a neighbouring  tea-house  might  gaze  at  his  leisure,  and 
meditate  in  a glorious  silence  broken  only  by  the  sound  of 
the  ripples  of  the  water  or  the  cry  of  the  birds  from  the 
neighbouring  woods,  all  are  now  vulgarised.  The  personally 
conducted  tourist  is  there  and  very  much  in  evidence. 
He  wanders  carelessly,  often  contemptuously,  through  the 
ancient  temples,  regarding  temples,  scenery,  river,  lakes, 
merely  as  “ something  to  be  done.”  The  change  was,  I 
suppose,  inevitable,  but  the  change  is  one  that  I think  is  in 
some  respects  to  be  regretted.  The  tourist  brings  money 
and  spends  it  freely,  and  the  country  no  doubt  reaps  the 
advantage  thereof,  but  the  effect  on  the  Japanese  brought 
into  contact  with  the  European  under  such  conditions  is 
not,  in  my  opinion,  always,  or  often,  beneficial. 

I have  not  much  to  remark  in  regard  to  the  fauna  of  Japan. 
The  domestic  animals  are  comparatively  few.  The  fact 
of  the  inhabitants  not  eating  animal  food  has  led  to  their 
paying  little  or  no  attention  to  the  breeding  of  those 
animals  which  are  largely  in  request  in  foreign  countries. 
Horses,  however,  are  fairly  plentiful,  though  small.  Japan, 
as  I have  elsewhere  remarked,  has  been  handicapped  in 
the  organisation  of  her  cavalry  by  the  lack  of  a proper 


THE  COUNTRY 


27 


supply  of  suitable  horses,  and  she  has  recently  despatched 
a commission  to  Europe  to  effect  purchases  with  a view  of 
putting  this  matter  right,  and  improving  the  breed  of 
horses  in  the  country.  Oxen  and  cows  were  till  recently 
entirely,  and  are  still  largely,  used  for  purposes  of  draught 
only.  Sheep  and  pigs  have  been  introduced  from  abroad, 
but  they  have  not  been  generally  distributed,  and  in  many 
parts  of  Japan  have  never  been  seen. 

The  wild  animals  of  Japan  are  neither  numerous  nor 
important.  The  black  bear  and  the  wolf  still  exist,  chiefly 
in  the  Northern  Island,  but  it  is  certain  that  at  no  far- 
distant  date  they  will,  unless  artificially  preserved,  go  the 
way  of  all  wild  animals  in  civilised  countries.  The  red- 
faced monkey  is  there,  the  only  kind  found  in  Japan,  and 
snakes  exist,  but  they  are  for  the  most  part  harmless.  The 
art  of  the  country  will  have  familiarised  Europeans  with 
the  presence  of  the  crane  and  the  stork,’ which  play  such  a 
prominent  part  therein.  Indeed  the  wild  birds  of  the 
country  are  more  numerous  than  the  animals.  I am  not 
aware  whether  geological  research  in  Japan  has  been 
sufficiently  extensive  or  systematic  to  ascertain  whether, 
and  if  so  what,  any  species  of  animals  have  ever  existed 
there  other  than  those  at  present  found  in  the  country.  It 
certainly  is  in  some  respects  extraordinary  that  a country 
so  close  to  the  Asiatic  Continent  and  possessing  such  a 
variety  of  climates  should,  as  regards  the  animal  kingdom 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  zoologist,  be  put  down  as 
distinctly  poor.  The  fact,  or  supposed  fact,  to  which  I have 
previously  referred,  that  the  Japanese  islands  are  the 
summits  of  mountain  ranges  which  many  thousand  years 
ago  had  their  bases  submerged  by  the  rising  of  the  sea  or 
had  gradually  settled  down  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
may,  of  course,  account  for  the  poverty  of  Japan  in  regard 


28 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


to  the  animals  therein.  I must  leave  other  pens  than  mine 
to  descant  on  that  interesting  if  highly  speculative  matter. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  if  the  fauna  of  Japan  is  poor,  the  country 
certainly  makes  up  for  it  by  the  variety  and  magnifi- 
cence of  its  flora — a flora  which  deserves  to  be  studied, 
and  which  has  done  so  much  to  brighten  not  only  the 
appearance  of  the  country  but  the  lives  of  its  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE 
HERE  are,  I have  always  thought,  two  ways  in 


which  any  race  should  be  considered  if  it  is 
desired  to  form  a correct  idea  in  regard  to  it,  viz.,  from 
an  ethnological  and  philological  standpoint.  No  race 
deserves  to  be  closer  studied  in  these  matters  than  the 
Japanese.  Indeed,  I am  of  opinion  that  it  is  impossible 
to  arrive  at  any  clear  or  correct  opinion  concerning  it 
without  having,  however  slightly,  investigated  its  racial 
descent  and  the  language  which,  among  Eastern  dialects, 
has  so  long  been  as  great  a puzzle  to  the  philologist  as 
has  Basque  among  the  European  languages.  Respecting 
the  origin  of  the  Japanese  we  know  practically  nothing — 
at  any  rate  nothing  authentic.  The  native  legends  and 
histories  afford  us  neither  guide  nor  clue  in  the  matter. 
These  legends  and  histories  tell  us  that  the  Japanese  are 
descended  from  the  gods,  but  I am  quite  certain  that  the 
modern  Japanese  receives  that  fact  (?)  with  something 
more  than  the  proverbial  grain  of  salt.  According  to  the 
old  legend  Ninigi-no-Nikoto  was  a god  despatched  by  his 
grandmother  the  Sun-goddess  to  take  possession  of  Japan, 
and  the  land  was  peopled  by  him  and  his  entourage. 
This  god-man,  it  is  stated,  lived  over  300,000  years ; his 


29 


30 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


son,  Hohoderni,  attained  to  twice  that  period  of  longevity, 
while  a grandchild,  Ugaya  by  name,  reached  the  respect- 
able old  age  of  836,042  years.  Ugaya  was,  it  is  stated,  the 
father  of  Jimmu,  the  first  Emperor.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
seriously  notice  fables  or  legends  or  poetic  imagery,  or 
whatever  these  tales  may  be  deemed  to  be,  although  I may 
remark  that  the  divine  descent  of  the  sovereign  of  Japan 
has,  so  far  as  I know,  never  been  formally  repudiated,  and 
it  is  still  explicitly,  if  not  implicitly,  held. 

Dr.  Kaemfer,  whose  great  work  I have  already  referred 
to,  propounded  therein  the  somewhat  fanciful  theory  that 
the  Japanese  are  really  the  direct  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Babylonians,  and  that  their  language  “is  one  of 
those  which  Sacred  Writ  mentions  the  all- wise  Providence 
thought  fit  to  infuse  into  the  minds  of  the  vain  builders  of 
the  Babylonian  Tower.”  According  to  his  theory,  which 
to  me  seems  absolutely  ludicrous,  the  Japanese  came 
through  Persia,  then  along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  by  the  bank  of  the  Oxus  to  its  source.  From  there, 
he  suggests,  they  crossed  China,  descended  the  Amoor, 
proceeded  southwards  to  Korea,  and  found  their  way 
across  the  intervening  sea  to  the  Japanese  islands. 
Another  theory,  which  has  found  many  supporters,  is 
that  the  Japanese  are  descended  from  the  Ainos,  the 
hairy  race  still  to  be  found  in  the  island  of  Yesso.  An 
advocate  of  this  view  seeks  to  bolster  up  his  faith  by  the 
evidences  of  an  aboriginal  race  still  to  be  found  in  the 
relics  of  the  Stone  Age  in  Japan.  “Flint  arrows  and  spear- 
heads,” he  remarks,  “ hammers,  chisels,  scrapers,  kitchen 
refuse,  and  various  other  trophies  are  frequently  excavated, 
or  may  be  found  in  the  museum  or  in  homes  of  private 
persons.  Though  covered  with  the  soil  for  centuries,  they 
seem  as  though  freshly  brought  from  an  Aino  hut  in  Yesso. 


THE  SWEET  SCENT  OF  THE  CHERRY  HLOSSOM 

FROM  A PRINT  BV  HIROSHIGE 


*•  V 


■»«*^  : :7’v,  i 


'9  *■  I - ”’'■< 

■f  J 4P.  - !>-,  *,•  *. 

’’  1 • . ' 

ItJ^'  '%■-.*.  w ^*c  > . ■ -* 


JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE  31 


In  scores  of  striking  instances  the  very  peculiar  ideas, 
customs,  and  superstitions  of  both  Japanese  and  Aino  are 
the  same,  or  but  slightly  modified.” 

This  seems  to  me  to  be  no  evidence  at  all.  Flint 
arrows,  spear-heads,  hammers,  and  so  on  are  to  be  found 
in  every  part  of  the  world.  Mankind  all  over  the  globe 
seems  to  have  evolved  its  civilisation,  or  what  passes  for 
it,  in  very  much  the  same  way,  viz.,  by  process  of  experi- 
ment. Another  authority  has  asserted  that  the  short, 
round  skull,  the  oblique  eyes,  the  prominent  cheek-bones, 
the  dark,  black  hair,  and  the  scanty  beard  all  proclaim 
the  Manchus  and  Koreans  as  the  nearest  congeners 
of  the  Japanese.  This  authority  considers  it  positive 
that  the  latter  are  a Tungusic  race,  and  that  their  own 
traditions  and  the  whole  course  of  their  history  are  in- 
compatible with  any  other  conclusion  than  that  Korea  is 
the  route  by  which  the  immigrant  tribes  made  their  entry 
into  Kiushiu  from  their  original  Manchurian  home.  While 
accepting  this  theory  with  some  reservations,  I may  remark 
that  I altogether  fail  to  see  what  the  “ whole  course  ” of 
Japanese  history  has  to  do  with  the  matter.  Japanese 
history,  as  I have  previously  observed,  is  almost  altogether 
legendary,  and  proves  nothing  except  the  credulity  of 
those  who  have  accepted  it  as  statements  of  fact.  Ethno- 
logy, I admit,  is  a most  interesting  field  for  speculation. 
It  is  one  in  which  the  mind  can  positively  run  riot  and 
the  imagination  revel.  The  wildest  theories  have  been  put 
forward  in  regard  to  many  of  the  world’s  races,  and  philo- 
logical arguments  of  the  thinnest  possible  kind  have  been 
used  to  bolster  them  up.  For  example,  one  very  able 
writer  on  this  matter  has  broached  a theory  respecting  the 
origin  of  the  Japanese,  and  supported  it  by  what  seems  to 
be  very  plausible  evidence.  He  assumes,  on  what  grounds 


32 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


I know  not,  that  there  was  a white  race  earlier  in  the  field 
of  history  than  the  Aryans,  and  that  the  seat  of  this  white 
race  was  in  High  Africa.  That  it  was  from  Africa  that 
migrations  were  made  to  North,  Central,  and  South 
America,  as  well  as  to  Egypt,  and  subsequently  to 
Babylonia  and,  apparently,  to  India.  In  due  course, 
according  to  this  authority,  Syria  and  Babylonia  were 
conquered  by  the  Semites,  while  the  Aryans  became 
masters  of  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  India.  The  sug- 
gestion is  that  the  conquerors  of  the  Japanese  islands 
and  the  founders  of  the  Japanese  language  and  mythology 
were  of  the  Turano- African  type.  That  these  invaders 
intermarried  with  a mixed  short  race,  and  that  the  new 
dominating  Japanese  race  maintained  and  propagated 
their  dialect  of  the  language  and  their  sect  of  the  religion, 
and  displaced  the  pure  natives.  The  same  authority 
suggests  that  when  the  Pacific  route  to  America  was 
closed  by  the  weakness  of  the  Turano  Africans  and  the 
rising  of  cannibals  and  other  savages  (where  did  they  rise 
from  ?)  the  Japanese  were  isolated  on  the  east  On  their 
west  the  Turano- African  dynasties  in  China  and  Korea 
fell,  and  were  replaced  by  natives,  the  same  series  of  events 
taking  place  as  in  Egypt,  Peru,  Mexico,  &c.  The  principal 
evidence  in  support  of  this  somewhat  startling  theory  is 
the  similarity  between  the  words  in  use  in  Japanese  and 
in  certain  African  languages.  But  if  evidence  of  that 
nature  is  to  be  accepted  in  proof  of  somewhat  improbable 
theories,  it  will  be  possible  to  prove  almost  anything  in 
regard  to  the  origin  of  races.  I utterly  reject  all  these 
far-fetched  theories.  Any  unprejudiced  man  looking  at 
the  Japanese,  the  Chinaman,  and  the  Korean  will  have 
no  doubt  whatever  in  his  own  mind  as  to  their  racial 
affinity.  Differences  there  most  certainly  are,  just  as 


JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE  33 


there  are  between  the  Frenchman  and  the  Englishman, 
or  even  the  Englishman  and  the  Scotchman,  but  what 
I may  term  the  pronounced  characteristics  are  the  same — 
the  colour  of  the  skin,  the  oblique  eyes,  the  dark  hair,  and 
the  contour  of  the  skull.  These  people,  whatever  the 
present  difference  in  their  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
characteristics,  have  quite  evidently  all  come  from  the 
same  stock.  They  are,  in  a word,  Mongolians,  and  any 
attempt  to  prove  that  one  particular  portion  of  this  stock 
is  Turano- African,  or  something  else  equally  absurd  from 
an  ethnological  point  of  view,  seems  to  me  to  be  positively 
childish.  There  was  probably  originally  a mixture  of 
races,  Malay  as  well  as  others,  which  has  had  its  effect  on 
the  peculiar  temperament  of  the  Japanese  as  he  is  to-day 
compared  with  the  Chinaman. 

Of  course  language  cannot  be  left  out  of  account  in  the 
question  of  the  racial  origin  of  any  people,  and  the  Japanese 
language  has,  as  I have  said,  long  been  a puzzle  for  the 
philologist.  In  the  early  times  we  are  told  the  Japanese 
had  no  written  language.  The  language  in  use  before  the 
opening  up  of  communications  with  Korea  and  China 
stood  alone.  Indeed  there  is  only  one  language  outside 
Japan  which  has  any  affinity  therewith,  that  is  the  language 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Loo-choo  Islands.  Philologists 
have  excluded  the  language  from  the  Aryan  and  Semitic 
tongues,  and  included  it  in  the  Turanian  group.  It  is  said 
to  possess  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Turanian  family 
being  agglutinated,  that  is  to  say,  maintaining  its  roots  in 
their  integrity  without  formative  prefixes,  poor  in  conjunc- 
tions, and  copious  in  the  use  of  participles.  It  is  uncertain 
when  alphabetical  characters  were  introduced  into  Japan, 
but  it  is  believed  to  have  happened  when  intercourse  with 
Korea  was  first  opened  about  the  commencement  of  the 

D 


34 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Christian  Era.  The  warrior  Empress,  Jungu-kogo,  is  said 
to  have  carried  away  from  Korea  as  many  books  as  possible 
after  the  successful  invasion  of  that  country.  In  the  third 
century  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Ojin  learned  to  read 
Chinese  works,  and  henceforward  the  Chinese  language 
and  literature  seem  to  have  been  introduced  into  Japan. 
A great  impetus  was  given  to  the  spread  of  Chinese 
literature  by  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  and  Buddhist 
writings  in  the  sixth  century,  and  the  effect  thereof  is  now 
apparent  in  the  number  of  Chinese  words  in  the  Japanese 
language.  The  question  as  to  the  origin  of  the  earliest 
written  characters  employed  in  Japan  is  one  that  has 
produced,  and  probably  will  continue  to  produce,  much 
controversy.  These  are  known  as  Shinji  letters  of  the 
God  Age,  but  they  have  left  no  traces  in  the  existing 
alphabet.  There  is  a remarkable  difference  between  the 
written  and  spoken  dialects  of  Japan.  The  grammars  of 
the  two  are  entirely  different,  and  it  is  possible  to  speak 
the  language  colloquially  and  yet  not  be  able  to  read  a 
newspaper,  book,  or  letter  ; while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
possible  to  know  the  written  language  thoroughly,  and  yet 
be  unable  to  carry  on  a conversation  with  a Japanese. 
The  spoken  language,  as  a matter  of  fact,  is  not  difficult 
except  in  regard  to  the  complicated  construction  of  the 
words.  The  difficulty  is  in  reference  to  the  written 
language.  There  are  really  three  modes  or  systems  of 
writing : the  first  consists  of  the  use  of  the  Chinese 
characters,  the  second  and  third  of  two  different  alphabets. 
Although  the  Japanese  have  adopted  the  Chinese  cha- 
racters and  learned  to  attach  to  them  the  same  meaning 
as  obtains  in  China,  the  construction  of  sentences  is  some- 
times so  totally  different  that  it  is  difficult  for  a Chinaman 
to  read  a book  written  by  a Japanese  in  the  Chinese 


JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE  35 


characters,  while  the  Japanese  cannot  read  Chinese  books 
unless  he  has  specially  studied  Chinese.  It  is  evident  from 
what  I have  said  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a complete 
knowledge  of  the  written  language  of  Japan  in  its  Chinese 
form.  There  is  a certain  school  of  thought  in  Japan  which 
is  enthusiastic  for  the  replacement  of  the  present  compli- 
cated system  by  the  introduction  of  a Roman  alphabet, 
but  I feel  bound  to  say  that  this  school  has  not  made 
much  progress,  and  it  is  not  likely  to  be  successful. 
Although  the  present  system  has  its  disadvantages,  it 
has  its  advantages  likewise.  The  written  characters  are 
those  common  to  about  450  millions  of  the  world’s  people, 
and  I think  that  the  use  of  the  Chinese  characters  in  Japan 
will  be  a factor  of  considerable  importance  in  the  future 
history  of  the  world,  because  I am  convinced  that  Japan 
is  destined  to  exercise  a preponderating  influence  in  and 
over  China,  and  that  the  exercise  of  that  influence  will  be 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  written  characters  which  both 
nations  have  in  common. 

I may  at  once  candidly  confess  that  I have  no  theory  to 
broach  in  respect  of  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  people  or 
the  language  that  they  speak.  In  such  matters  theorising 
appears  to  me  to  be  a pure  waste  of  time.  One  has  only 
to  look  round  the  world  as  it  is  to-day,  or  for  the  matter  of 
that  within  the  confines  of  one’s  own  country,  to  see  how 
rapidly  the  people  living  for  long  periods  in  a certain  part 
of  the  country  develop  distinct  characteristics  not  only  in 
physiognomy  but  in  dialect.  It  is  only  the  existence  of 
the  printing  press  which  has,  so  to  speak,  stereotyped  the 
languages  of  nations  and  prevented  variations  becoming 
fixed,  variations  and  dialects  which  in  days  prior  to  the 
existence  of  printing  presses  were  evolved  into  distinct 
languages.  Take  the  British  Isles  for  example,  any  part  of 


36 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


them,  Yorkshire,  Scotland,  Ireland,  London,  and  note  the 
difference  between  the  spoken  language  of  certain  classes 
and  the  language  as  printed  in  newspapers  and  books. 
Given  a nation  isolated,  or  comparatively  isolated,  for  many 
hundreds  of  years,  it  is  difficult  to  say  to  what  extent  its 
language  might  be  evolved  or  in  what  degree  the  few 
chance  visitors  thereto  may  introduce  words  which  are 
readily  adapted  to  or  adopted  in  the  language  and  influence 
it  for  all  time.  Take,  for  example,  a word  which  any 
visitor  to  China  or  Japan  must  have  heard  over  and  over 
again,  viz.,  “ Joss,”  as  applied  to  God.  This  is,  as  most 
people  know,  simply  a corruption  of  the  Portuguese  name 
for  the  deity.  I hope  some  philologist  a few  thousand 
years  hence  who  may  trace  that  word  to  its  original  source 
will  not  adduce  therefrom  that  either  the  Chinese  or  the 
Japanese  sprang  from  a Latin  race. 

The  most  ancient  Japanese  writings  date  from  the  eighth 
century.  These  are  Japanese  written  in  Chinese  characters, 
but  the  Chinese  written  language  as  also  its  literature  and 
the  teachings  of  the  great  Chinese  philosopher,  Confucius, 
are  believed  to  have  been  introduced  several  hundreds  of 
years  previously.  This  contact  with  and  importation  from 
China  undoubtedly  had  a marked  effect  in  inducing  what 
I may  term  atrophy  in  the  development  of  the  Japanese 
language  as  also  the  growth  of  its  own  literature,  that  is  a 
literature  entirely  devoid  of  Chinese  influences.  Indeed  it 
is  impossible  to  speculate  on  what  might  have  been  the 
development  of  Japan  and  in  what  direction  that  develop- 
ment would  have  proceeded  had  she  never  come  under  the 
influence  of  the  Chinese  language,  literature,  religion,  and 
artistic  principles. 

I have  not  the  slightest  doubt  myself,  as  I have  said 
before,  that  the  Japanese  are  of  the  same  stock  as  the 


JAPANESE  RACE  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE  37 


Chinese  and  Koreans.  I have  no  theory  in  regard  to  the 
origin  of  the  Ainos,  who  are  most  likely  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants.  They  are  quite  evidently  a distinct  race  from 
the  Japanese  proper,  although  of  course  there  has  been 
some  interbreeding  between  them. 

The  language  of  Japan  naturally  suggests  some  reference 
to  its  literature,  of  which  there  is  no  lack,  either  ancient  or 
modern.  I have  dealt  with  this  matter  in  some  detail  in  a 
subsequent  chapter.  The  old  literature  of  Japan  is  but 
little  known  to  Europeans,  and  probably  most  Europeans 
would  be  incapable  of  appreciating  or  understanding  it. 
It  abounds  in  verbal  artifices,  and  the  whole  habits  of  life 
and  modes  of  thought  and  conception  of  things,  material 
and  spiritual,  of  the  Japanese  of  those  days  were  so  totally 
different  to  those  of  the  European  as  to  render  it  almost 
unintelligible  to  the  latter.  There  are,  however,  scholars 
who  have  waded  through  this  literature  as  also  through  the 
poetry  of  Japan  and  have  found  great  delight  therein.  In 
the  process  of  translating  an  Oriental  language,  full  of 
depths  of  subtlety  of  thought  and  expressing  Oriental  ideas 
in  an  Oriental  manner,  much,  if  not  most,  of  its  beauty  and 
charm  must  be  lost.  That  is,  I think,  why  the  Japanese 
prose  and  poetry  when  translated  into  English  seem  so 
bald  and  lifeless.  We  know  by  experience  that  even  a 
European  language  loses  in  the  process  of  translation  which 
is,  except  in  very  rare  instances,  a purely  mechanical  art. 
How  much  more  so  must  be  the  case  in  regard  to  an 
Oriental  language  with  its  depths  of  hyperbole  and  replete 
with  imagery,  idealism,  and  flowery  illustrations. 

I have  referred  to  the  literature  of  modern  Japan,  the 
ephemeral  literature,  in  a chapter  on  its  newspaper  press. 
The  modern  literature,  whether  ephemeral  or  otherwise,  is 
distinctly  not  on  Oriental  lines.  The  influence  of  the  West 


38 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


permeates  it.  Distinctive  Japanese  literature  is,  I imagine, 
a thing  of  the  past,  and  I fear  it  will  be  less  and  less 
studied  as  time  goes  on.  Young  Japan  is  a “ hustler,”  to 
use  a modern  word,  and  it  has  no  time  and  mayhap  not 
much  inclination  for  what  it  perhaps  regards  as  somewhat 
effete  matter.  It  thinks  hurriedly  and  acts  rapidly,  and 
it,  accordingly,  aspires  to  express  its  thoughts  and  ideas 
through  a medium  which  shall  do  so  concisely  and 
effectively. 

Whatever  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  race  or  the  Japanese 
language,  whether  the  former  came  from  the  plains  of 
Babylon,  the  heights  of  Africa,  or  from  some  part  of  the 
American  Continent,  or  was  evolved  on  the  spot,  one  thing 
is  certain — that  the  Japanese  race  and  the  Japanese  language 
have  been  indelibly  stamped  on  the  world’s  history.  The 
ethnologist  may  still  puzzle  himself  as  to  the  origin  of  these 
forty-seven  millions  of  people  and  feel  annoyed  because  he 
cannot  classify  them  to  his  own  satisfaction.  The  philolo- 
gist may  feel  an  equal  or  even  a greater  puzzle  in  reference 
to  their  language.  These  are  merely  speculative  matters 
which  may  interest  or  amuse  the  man  who  has  the  time 
for  such  pursuits,  but  they  are,  after  all,  of  no  great  practical 
importance.  The  future  of  a race  is  of  more  concern  than 
its  past,  and,  whatever  the  origin  of  a language  may  have 
been,  if  that  language  serves  in  the  processes  of  develop- 
ment to  give  expression  to  noble  thoughts,  whether  in 
prose  or  poetry,  to  voice  the  wisdom  of  the  people,  to 
preach  the  gospel  of  human  brotherhood,  it  matters  little 
how  it  was  evolved  or  whence  it  came.  It  is  because  I 
believe  that  the  Japanese  race  and  the  Japanese  language 
have  a great  future  before  them  in  the  directions  I have 
indicated  that  I have  dealt  but  lightly,  I hope  none  of  my 
readers  will  think  contemptuously,  with  the  theories  that 
have  been  put  forward  in  reference  to  the  origin  of  both. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN,  THEIR  INFLUENCES 
AND  EFFECTS 

Most  persons  in  this  country  if  they  were  asked 
what  was  the  religion  of  the  Japanese  people  would 
probably  answer  Buddhism.  As  a matter  of  fact,  though 
Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  from  Korea  as  far 
back  as  552  A.D.,  it  is  not  and  never  has  been  the  pre- 
ponderating religion  in  Japan.  At  the  same  time  I quite 
admit  that  it  has  had  a marked  effect  on  the  religious  life 
of  the  people,  and  that  it  again  has  been  influenced  by  the 
ancient  Shinto  (literally,  “ The  way  of  the  gods  ”)  belief 
of  the  Japanese  people.  This  belief,  a compound  of 
mythology  and  ancestral  worship,  was  about  the  first 
century  largely  encrusted  by  Confucian  doctrines  or 
maxims,  mostly  ethical,  imported  from  China.  Of  the 
precise  doctrines  of  Shintoism  but  little  is  even  now 
known.  It  has  apparently  no  dogmas  and  no  sacred  book. 
I am  aware  that  there  are  the  ancient  Shinto  rituals,  called 
Nurito,  and  that  in  reference  to  them  a vast  amount  of 
more  or  less  erudite  commentary  has  been  written.  The 
result,  however,  has  not  been  very  enlightening.  I think 
that  Kaemfer  succinctly  summed  up  the  Shinto  faith  in 
reference  to  the  Japanese  people  when  he  remarked,  “ The 

more  immediate  end  which  they  propose  to  themselves  is 

39 


40 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


a state  of  happiness  in  this  world.”  In  other  words,  if  this 
assertion  be  correct,  Shintoism  preaches  utilitarianism.  As 
to  the  origin  of  this  religion  there  is  very  much  the  same 
uncertainty  and  quite  as  large  an  amount  of  theorising  as  is 
the  case  in  reference  to  the  Japanese  race  and  language. 
The  most  generally  received  opinion  is  that  Shintoism  is 
closely  allied  with,  if  not  an  offshoot  of,  the  old  religion  of 
the  Chinese  people  prior  to  the  days  of  Confucius.  Ori- 
ginally Shinto  was  in  all  probability  a natural  religion,  but, 
like  all  religious  systems,  it  has  developed  or  suffered  from 
accretions  until  the  ancient  belief  is  lost  in  obscurity. 
The  author  of  a now  somewhat  out-of-date  book,  entitled 
“ Progress  of  Japan,”  asserts  that  the  religion  of  the 
Japanese  consists  in  a “ belief  that  the  productive  ethereal 
spirit  being  expanded  through  the  whole  universe,  everj'^  part 
is  in  some  degree  impregnated  with  it  and  therefore  every 
part  is  in  some  measure  the  seat  of  the  Deity ; whence 
local  gods  and  goddesses  are  everywhere  worshipped 
and  consequently  multiplied  without  end.  Like  the 
ancient  Romans  and  Greeks  they  acknowledge  a supreme 
being,  the  first,  the  supreme,  the  intellectual,  by  which  men 
have  been  reclaimed  from  rudeness  and  barbarism  to 
elegance  and  refinement,  and  been  taught  through 
privileged  men  and  women  not  only  to  live  with  more 
comfort  but  to  die  with  better  hope.”  Such  a religion, 
however  it  may  be  described,  seems  to  me  to  be  in  effect 
Pantheism. 

When  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  the  Budd- 
hist priesthood  seems  to  have  made  no  difficulty  about 
receiving  the  native  gods  into  their  Pantheon.  Gradually 
the  greater  number  of  the  Shinto  temples  were  served  by 
Buddhist  priests  who  introduced  into  them  the  elaborate 
ornaments  and  ritual  of  Buddhism.  The  result  was  a 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 


41 


kind  of  hybrid  religion,  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  ancient  and  the  imported  faith  not  being  very  clearly 
defined.  Hence  perhaps  the  religious  tolerance  of  the 
Japanese  for  so  many  centuries,  even  to  Christianity  when 
first  introduced  by  St.  Francis  Xavier.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  something 
akin  to  a religious  reformation  in  Japan  in  the  direction 
of  the  revival  of  pure  Shintoism.  For  a century  and  a half 
subsequently  Shintoism  held  up  its  head,  and  eventually, 
as  the  outcome  of  the  Revolution  of  1868,  which  marked  a 
turning-point  in  the  history  of  Japan,  Buddhism  was  dis- 
established and  disendowed  and  Shinto  was  installed  as 
the  State  religion.  Simultaneously  many  thousand  of 
Buddhist  temples  were  stripped  of  their  magnificent  and 
elaborate  ornaments  and  handed  over  to  Shinto  keeping; 
but  the  downfall  of  Buddhism  was  merely  of  a tem- 
porary nature.  Nevertheless  Shinto  is,  ostensibly  at  any 
rate,  still  the  State  religion.  Certain  temples  are  main- 
tained from  public  funds  and  certain  official  religious 
functions  take  place  in  Shinto  edifices. 

Buddhism,  acclimatised  though  it  has  been  in  Japan  for 
thirteen  centuries,  is  still  a foreign  religion,  but  it  has 
played,  and  to  some  extent  still  plays,  an  important  part 
in  the  life  and  history  of  the  nation,  and  it  has,  as  I have 
said,  materially  influenced  the  ancient  faith  of  Japan  and 
in  turn  been  influenced  by  it.  I have  no  intention  of 
describing,  much  less  tracing,  the  history  of  Buddhism, 
whether  in  Japan  or  elsewhere.  It  is  a subject  on  which 
many  writers  have  descanted  and  in  regard  to  which  much 
might  still  be  written.  There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that 
Buddhism  as  it  exists  to-day,  whether  in  Ceylon,  India, 
China,  or  Japan,  is  widely  different  from  the  religion  of 
its  founder.  Many  of  its  original  doctrines  were  purely 


42 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


symbolical  and  poetical.  These  have  been  evolved  into 
something  they  were  certainly  never  intended  to  mean. 
That  the  principles  of  the  Buddhist  religion  are  essentially 
pure  and  moral  no  one  who  has  any  knowledge  of  it  can 
deny.  It  preaches  above  all  things  the  suppression  of  self, 
and  it  inculcates  a tenderness  and  fondness  for  all  forms  of 
life.  According  to  Griffis,  “ Its  commandments  are  the 
dictates  of  the  most  refined  morality.  Besides  the  cardinal 
prohibitions  against  murder,  stealing,  adultery,  lying, 
drunkenness  and  unchastity,  every  shade  of  vice,  hypo- 
crisy, anger,  pride,  suspicion,  greediness,  gossiping,  cruelty 
to  animals  is  guarded  against  by  special  precepts.  Among 
the  virtues  recommended  we  find  not  only  reverence  of 
parents,  care  of  children,  submission  to  authority,  grati- 
tude, moderation  in  times  of  prosperity,  submission  in 
times  of  trial,  equanimity  at  all  times,  but  virtues  such  as 
the  duty  of  forgiving  insults  and  not  rewarding  evil  with 
evil.”  This  is  a pretty  exhaustive  moral  code,  and  though 
Buddhism  has  often  been  taunted  with  the  fact  that  its 
followers  do  not  practically  carry  out  its  precepts  and  live 
up  to  the  level  of  its  high  moral  teaching.  Buddhism  is 
not,  I would  suggest,  the  only  religion  against  which 
such  taunts  can  be  levelled. 

The  history  of  Buddhism  ever  since  its  introduction  into 
Japan  has  been  an  eventful  one.  It  has  had  its  ups  and 
its  downs.  It  came  into  the  country  under  royal  auspices, 
it  has  nearly  always  enjoyed  the  royal  favour,  and  I think 
its  existence,  during  at  any  rate  the  first  few  centuries  it 
was  in  the  country,  has  been  due  to  that  fact  rather  than 
to  any  pronounced  affection  on  the  part  of  the  mass  of  the 
people  for  it.  One  Emperor,  Shirakawa  by  name,  is 
recorded  to  have  erected  more  than  50,000  pagodas  and 
statues  throughout  the  country  in  honour  of  Buddha. 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 


43 


Many  of  these  works  are  still,  after  many  centuries,  in  an 
excellent  state  of  preservation,  and  are  of  deep  interest  not 
only  to  the  antiquarian  but  to  any  student  of  the  religious 
history  of  a nation.  The  Buddhist  priests,  like  the  Jesuits 
in  European  countries,  during  many  centuries  captured 
and  controlled  education  in  Japan  and  showed  themselves 
thoroughly  progressive  in  their  methods  and  the  know- 
ledge they  inculcated.  Art  and  medicine  were  introduced 
under  their  auspices  and,  whatever  one  may  think  of,  or 
whatever  criticism  may  be  passed  on  the  religion  itself,  it 
is  impossible,  in  my  opinion,  to  deny  that  Buddhism  on  the 
whole  has  had  a vast  and,  I venture  to  think,  not  an 
unhealthy  influence  on  every  phase  of  Japanese  national 
and  domestic  life.  The  strength  and  weakness  of  Budd- 
hism have  undoubtedly  lain  in  the  fact  that  it  possessed 
and  possesses  no  dogmatic  creed.  It  concerned  itself 
almost  entirely  with  self-mastery,  self-suppression,  the 
duty  of  doing  good  in  this  world  without  looking  forward 
to  any  reward  for  the  same  in  the  next.  It  preached 
benevolence  in  the  true  meaning  of  that  word  in  every 
shape  and  form.  It  taught  that  benevolence  was  the 
highest  aspiration  of  a noble  spirit.  Benevolence  was, 
indeed,  the  master  virtue,  the  crown,  the  coping  stone,  of 
all  virtues.  As  the  term  is  used  in  Buddhist  teaching,  it 
may  be  regarded  as  the  synonym  of  love  and  a close  study 
of  the  teaching  of  Buddhism  on  this  subject  must  impress 
any  thinking  man  strongly  with  the  idea  that  it  was  very 
much  the  teaching  of  Christ  in  reference  to  the  love  of 
one’s  neighbour.  Buddhism  in  Japan  at  any  rate  has  not 
been  conservative ; it  has  gone  the  way  of  most  religious 
systems,  has  been  subject  to  development  and  has  evolved 
from  time  to  time  different  sects,  some  of  which  have  held 
and  preached  dogmas  which  would,  I think,  have  astounded. 


44 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  I feel  certain  would  have  been  anathematised  by,  the 
founder  of  Buddhism.  The  principal  of  the  sects  now 
existing  in  Japan  are  the  Tendai,  Shingon  Yoko  and 
Ken,  all  of  which,  I may  observe,  are  of  Chinese  origin. 
Besides  these  there  are  the  Shin  and  the  Nichiren  evolved 
in  Japan  and  dating  from  the  thirteenth  century.  Re- 
specting the  metaphysics  of  Buddhism  and  their  effect  on 
the  Japanese  people  I cannot,  I think,  do  better  than  quote 
from  that  great  authority  on  all  things  Japanese,  Mr. 
Basil  Hall  Chamberlain,  whose  writings  have  done  so 
much,  not  only  to  awaken  an  interest  in  Japan  but  to  give 
correct  ideas  respecting  the  life  of  the  people.  He  remarks, 
in  this  connection,  “ The  complicated  metaphysics  of 
Buddhism  have  awakened  no  interest  in  the  Japanese 
nation.  Another  fact,  curious  but  true,  is  that  these  people 
have  never  been  at  the  trouble  to  translate  the  Buddhist 
canon  into  their  own  language.  The  priests  use  a Chinese 
version,  the  laity  no  version  at  all  nowadays,  though  to 
judge  from  the  allusions  scattered  up  and  down  Japanese 
literature  they  would  seem  to  have  been  more  given  to 
searching  the  Scriptures  a few  hundred  years  ago.  The 
Buddhist  religion  was  disestablished  and  disendowed 
during  the  years  1871-4 — a step  taken  in  consequence  of 
the  temporary  ascendency  of  Shinto.  At  the  present  time 
a faint  struggle  is  being  carried  on  by  the  Buddhist  priest- 
hood against  rivals  in  comparison  with  whom  Shinto  is 
insignificant : we  mean  the  two  great  streams  of  European 
thought — Christianity  and  physical  science.  A few — a 
very  few — men  trained  in  European  methods  fight  for  the 
Buddhist  cause.  They  do  so,  not  as  orthodox  believers 
in  any  existing  sect,  but  because  they  are  convinced  that 
the  philosophical  contents  of  Buddhism  in  general  are 
supported  by  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  and  that  this 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 


45 


religion  needs  therefore  only  to  be  regenerated  on  modern 
lines  in  order  to  find  universal  acceptance.” 

The  “Reformation”  of  1868  in  Japan  followed  much 
the  same  course  in  regard  to  religious  matters  as  the 
Reformation  in  England.  It  laid  vandal  hands  on  Budd- 
hist temples  and  ornaments  of  priceless  value.  The 
objective  point  of  this  religious  Reformation  was  pre- 
sumably very  much  the  same  as  that  which  occurred  in 
this  country,  viz.,  a reversion  to  simplicity  in  religion. 
The  Shinto  Temple  which  is  invariably  thatched  is  a 
development  of  the  ancient  Japanese  hut,  whereas  the 
Buddhist  Temple,  which  is  of  Indian  origin,  is  tiled,  and  as 
regards  its  internal  fittings  and  ornamentation  is  elaborate 
in  comparison  with  the  plain  appearance  of  the  Shinto 
edifice. 

So  far  as  the  Japan  of  to-day  is  concerned  these  two 
religions  may  be  regarded  as  moribund,  although  their 
temples  are  still  thronged  by  the  lower  classes  of  the 
people.  They  exist  because  they  are  there,  but  they  have 
no  vitality,  no  message  for  the  people,  and  it  is  questionable 
whether  any  of  Japan’s  great  thinkers  or  the  educated 
classes  in  the  country,  whichever  religion  they  may 
nominally  belong  to,  have  faith  or  belief  in  it.  A man 
may  have,  or  for  sundry  reasons  profess,  a creed  in  Japan 
as  in  other  countries  without  believing  in  it.  Custom  and 
prejudices  are  as  strong  there  as  elsewhere,  and  it  is  often 
easier  to  appear  to  acquiesce  in  a religion  than  to  openly 
reject  it. 

There  are,  I know,  some  optimistic  persons  who  believe, 
or  affect  to  believe,  that  Christianity  is  in  due  course 
destined  to  replace  the  ancient  faiths  in  Japan.  They 
point  to  what  was  effected  by  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  they  imagine  that  the  Japan  of  the 


46 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


twentieth  century  is  only  waiting  to  finally  unshackle 
itself  from  Shintoism  and  Buddhism  before  arraying  itself 
in  the  garb  of  Christianity.  Well,  Christian  missions  have 
had  a fair  field  in  Japan  for  many  years  past,  and  though 
many  members  of  those  missions  have  been  men  of  great 
piety,  zeal,  and  learning,  they  have  made  comparatively 
little  headway  among  and  have  exercised  extremely  little 
influence  on  the  mass  of  the  Japanese  people.  Indeed,  the 
fair  field  that  all  Christian  missions  without  distinction 
have  had,  in  my  opinion,  accounts  for  the  small  amount  of 
progress  they  have  made  Because  all  the  leading  Christian 
denominations  are  there — Roman  Catholicism,  Church  of 
England,  Greek  Church,  Congregationalists,  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Salvation  Army,  Society  of  Friends,  and  others — 
all  preaching  and  proclaiming  their  own  particular  dogmas 
and  all  lumped  together  by  the  Japanese  under  the  generic 
title  of  Christians.  The  Japanese  may,  I think,  be  excused 
if  he  fails  to  differentiate  between  them.  He  views  and 
hears  their  differences  in  dogma.  He  observes  that  there 
is  no  bond  of  union,  and  frequently  considerable  jealousy 
among  these  numerous  sects.  Each  claims  to  preach 
the  truth,  and  the  Japanese  concludes  that  as  they 
cannot  all  be  right  they  may  possibly  all  be  wrong.  It  is 
only  on  this  assumption  that  it  is  possible  to  account  for 
the  little  headway  made  by  Christianity  in  Japan  in  view 
of  the  labour  and  money  devoted  by  different  religious 
bodies  to  its  propagation  for  many  years  past.  There  is, 
let  me  add,  no  marked  hostility  to  Christianity  in  Japan — 
only  indifference.  The  educated  Japanese  of  to-day  is,  I 
believe,  for  the  most  part  an  agnostic,  and  he  views 
Shintoism,  Buddhism,  Christianity  alike,  except  in  so  far  as 
he  regards  the  first  two  as  more  or  less  national  and  the 
last  as  an  exotic. 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 


47 


At  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Japanese  Christians  are  stated  to  have  amounted  in 
numbers  to  one  million.  At  the  present  time  it  is  doubtful 
if  they  total  up  to  one  hundred  thousand.  And  this  despite 
the  splendid  religious  organisations  that  exist,  the  facilities 
that  are  given  for  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  the  opportunities  which  were  certainly  not  in  existence 
three  hundred  years  ago.  Into  the  causes  of  this  com- 
parative failure  of  Christianity  in  Japan  to-day  as  compared 
with  its  marvellous  progress  in  the  sixteenth  century,  I 
do  not  propose  to  enter.  The  enthusiasm  of  a Francis 
Xavier  is  not  an  everyday  event,  and  the  Japanese  of  the 
sixteenth  century  was,  mayhap,  more  impressed  by  the 
missionaries  of  those  days,  arriving  in  flimsy  and  diminutive 
vessels  after  undergoing  the  perils  and  hardships  of  long 
voyages,  having  neither  purse  nor  scrip  nor  wearing 
apparel  except  what  they  stood  up  in,  than  he  is  by  the 
modern  missionary  arriving  as  a first-class  passenger  in  a 
magnificent  steamer  and  during  his  residence  in  the  country 
lacking  none  of  the  comforts  or  amenities  of  life.  Or  it 
may  be  that  the  Japanese  mind  has  advanced  and  developed 
during  the  past  three  centuries,  has  now  less  hankering  after 
metaphysical  subtleties,  and  fails  to  comprehend  or  to 
sympathise  with  abstruse  theological  dogmas  and  doctrines. 
If  Christianity  appealed  to  him  as  in  the  days  of  Francis 
Xavier  as  the  one  faith  professed  by  the  Western  world, 
it  would  probably  impress  him  to  a far  greater  extent  than 
it  does  at  present  when,  as  I have  before  said,  he  views 
Christianity  as  a disorganised  body  composed  of  hundreds 
of  sects  each  rejecting,  and  many  of  them  anathematising, 
what  the  others  teach.  He  considers  there  is  no  need  for 
investigation  until  Christianity  has  itself  determined  what 
is  the  precise  truth  that  non-Christian  countries  are  to  be 
asked  to  accept. 


48 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Regarding  the  influence  of  the  Buddhist  and  Shinto 
religions  during  the  many  centuries  they  have  existed  in 
the  country  on  the  lives  of  the  people,  I propose  to  make 
a few  remarks.  Too  often  one  hears  or  reads  of  speakers 
and  writers  describing  Japan  as  a country  steeped  in 
paganism  and  addicted  to  pagan  habits  and  customs  with 
all  (somewhat  indefinite  this !)  that  they  involve.  To 
describe  Buddhism  as  paganism  merely  shows  a lamentable 
amount  of  ignorance  ; nor  should  I be  inclined  to  include 
Shintoism  in  a term  which,  whatever  its  precise  meaning, 
is  invariably  intended  to  be  opprobious ! After  all,  any 
religion  must  be  largely  judged  by  its  effects  on  the  lives 
of  its  adherents,  and  judged  by  that  standard  I do  not 
think,  as  regards  the  Japanese,  either  Buddhism  or 
Shintoism  ought  to  be  sweepingly  condemned.  If  many 
of  the  customs  and  practices  of  both  religions  seem  silly 
or  absurd  ; if  either  or  both  inculcate  or  lead  to  superstition, 
it  can  at  least  be  said  of  both  that  they  teach  a high  moral 
code,  and  that  the  average  Japanese  in  his  life,  his  family 
relations,  his  philosophy,  his  patriotism,  his  bodily  cleanli- 
ness, and  in  many  other  respects,  offers  an  example  to  other 
nations  which  deem  themselves  more  highly  civilised,  which 
possess  a purer  religion  and  too  often,  with  that  lack  of 
charity  which  is  frequently  the  result  of  an  excess  of 
ignorance,  unsparingly  condemn  the  Japanese  as  “ pagans  ” 
or  “heathens.” 


A CIIKRRV  BI.OSSOM  PARTY 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  CONSTITUTION — THE  CROWN  AND  THE  HOUSES  OF 
PARLIAMENT 

Constitution,  if  we  are  to  accept  the  dogmatic 


assertions  of  those  who  have  written  with  a show  of 
learning  on  the  subject,  ought  to  be  evolved  rather  than 
established  by  any  parliamentary  or  despotic  act.  The 
history  of  the  world  certainly  tends  to  prove  that  paper 
Constitutions  have  not  been  over-successful  in  the  past. 
There  assuredly  has  been  no  lack  of  them  in  the  last 
century  or  so,  and  although  some,  if  not  all,  of  them  have 
been  practically  tried,  a very  few  have  attained  any 
considerable  measure  of  success.  The  English  Constitution 
has  long  been  held  up  to  the  rest  of  the  world  by  writers 
on  Constitutional  history  as  a model  of  what  a Constitution 
ought  to  be,  for  the  somewhat  paradoxical  reason  that  it  is 
nowhere  clearly,  if  indeed  at  all,  defined.  It  is  largely  the 
outcome  of  custom  and  usage,  and  it  is  claimed  for  it  that 
on  the  whole  it  has  worked  better  than  any  cut-and-dried 
paper  Constitution  would  have  done. 

Nevertheless  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  good  and 
valid  reason  why  a Constitution  should  not  be  as  clearly 
defined  as  an  Act  of  Parliament.  Undefined  Constitutions 
have  worked  well  at  certain  periods  when  there  was  a tacit 

E 49 


50 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


general  consent  as  to  their  meaning,  but  they  have  not 
always  been  able  to  withstand  the  strain  of  fierce  con- 
troversy and  the  coming  into  existence  of  factors  which 
were  undreamt  of  when  these  Constitutions  were  originally 
evolved,  and  definitions  or  additions  or  amendments 
thereto  have,  accordingly,  become  necessary. 

The  promulgation  of  a Constitution  for  Japan  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1889,  was  an  event  of  great  interest  to  the  civilised 
world.  There  were,  of  course,  at  the  time  a large  number 
of  persons  who  prophesied  that  this  Constitution  would 
go  the  way  of  many  others  that  had  preceded  it — that 
it  would,  in  fact,  be  found  unworkable  and,  being  so  found. 
Constitutional  Government  in  Japan  would  eventuate,  as 
it  had  elsewhere,  in  the  resumption  of  autocratic  rule  as 
the  only  alternative  to  anarchy.  It  is  pleasing  to  be 
able  to  record  that  these  prophecies  have,  after  nearly 
eighteen  years’  experience,  not  been  fulfilled,  and  that 
the  Japanese  Constitution,  well  thought  out  and  devised 
as  it  was,  seems  not  only  likely  to  endure  but  is  admirably 
adapted  to  all  the  circumstances  and  needs  of  the 
country. 

In  order  to  fully  comprehend  the  events  that  gradually 
led  up  to  the  establishment  of  Constitutional  govern- 
ment in  Japan,  and  the  precise  place  of  the  Crown  and 
aristocracy  in  that  government,  it  is,  I think,  essential  to 
make  a rapid  review  of  past  events  in  that  country. 

In  ancient  times  the  Mikado  was  both  the  civil  ruler 
and  the  military  leader  of  his  people.  Under  him  there 
were  exercising  authority  throughout  the  land  about  150 
feudal  lords.  Feudalism  of  one  kind  or  another  prevailed 
in  Japan  until  1868.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  feudal  principle  was  apparently  on  the  decline. 
In  the  year  1600,  however,  Tokagawa  lyoyasu,  with  an 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


51 


army  composed  of  the  clans  of  the  east  and  north 
defeated  the  combined  forces  of  those  of  the  west  and 
south  at  the  battle  of  Sakigahara  and  proclaimed  himself 
Shogun.  The  feudal  lords  of  the  various  clans  throughout 
the  country  then  became  his  vassals  and  paid  homage  to 
him.  The  Tokagawa  family  practically  governed  the 
country  till  the  Revolution  of  1868,  when  the  present 
Emperor  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands 
and  finally  abolished  feudalism  and  with  it  the  authority 
of  the  Daimios.  Many  persons  even  now  believe  that 
the  Shogun,  or  Tycoon  as  he  was  usually  called  in  Europe, 
was  a usurper.  As  a matter  of  fact  he  received  investiture 
from  the  Mikado,  and  his  authority  was,  nominally  at  any 
rate,  a derived  one.  At  the  same  time  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  real  power  of  the  State  was  in  his  hands  while 
the  de  jure  ruler  lived  in  the  capital  in  complete  seclusion 
surrounded  by  all  the  appanages  and  ceremonial  of  royalty. 

Up  to  the  year  1868  Japan  was  divided  into  numerous 
provinces  governed  by  Daimios,  or  territorial  lords,  each 
of  whom  maintained  large  standing  armies.  They  were 
all  subject  to  the  Shogun,  while  retaining  the  right  to 
rule  their  particular  provinces  in  ordinary  matters.  In 
1868  the  Shogun  fell,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  his 
fall  was  to  some  extent  brought  about  by  the  concessions 
which  had  been  made  to  foreign  Powers  in  regard  to 
the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreign  trade.  In  1868 
the  Shogun  repaired  to  Kyoto,  the  first  time  for  250 
years,  and  paid  homage  to  the  Mikado.  Feudalism  was 
then,  as  I have  said,  abolished,  the  Emperor  took  the 
reins  of  authority  into  his  own  hands,  formed  a central 
Government  at  Tokio  and  reigned  supreme  as  an  absolute 
monarch. 

“The  sacred  throne  was  established  at  the  time  when 


52 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  heavens  and  earth  became  separated.”  This  has 
long  been  an  axiom  of  Japanese  belief,  but  it  has  been 
somewhat  modified  of  late  years,  even  the  assertion  of  it 
by  the  Sovereign  himself.  A leading  Japanese  statesman 
who  has  written  an  article  on  the  subject  of  the  Emperor 
and  his  place  in  the  Constitution  has  asserted  that  he 
is  “ Heaven  descended,  sacred  and  divine.”  I do  not 
think  that  the  modern  Japanese  entertains  this  tran- 
scendental opinion  nor,  indeed,  do  I find  that  the  Emperor 
himself  has  of  late  years  put  forward  any  such  pretensions. 
For  example,  in  the  Imperial  proclamation  on  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  Empire  on  February  ii,  1889,  the 
Emperor  declared  that  he  had  “by  virtue  of  the  glories 
of  our  ancestors  ascended  the  Throne  of  a lineal  succession 
unbroken  for  a£^es  eternal!'  Whereas  in  the  Imperial 
Rescript  declaring  war  against  China  on  August  i,  1894, 
he  contented  himself  with  asserting  that  he  was  “seated 
on  a Throne  occupied  by  the  same  dynasty  from  time 
immemorial!'  The  italics  are  mine,  and  the  difference 
in  the  pretensions  which  I desire  to  emphasise  is  certainly 
remarkable. 

When  granting  a Constitution  the  Emperor,  as  has  been 
and  probably  will  be  the  custom  of  all  monarchs  so  acting, 
declared  that  the  legislative  power  belonged  to  him  but 
that  he  intended  to  exercise  it  with  the  consent  of  the 
Imperial  Diet.  The  convocation  of  the  Diet  belongs 
exclusively  to  the  Emperor.  It  has  no  power  to  meet 
without  his  authority,  and  if  it  did  so  meet  its  acts  and 
its  actions  would  be  null  and  void.  In  this  respect  the 
Diet  is  on  precisely  the  same  basis  as  the  English  Par- 
liament. According  to  the  Constitution  the  Emperor, 
when  the  Diet  is  not  sitting,  can  issue  Imperial  ordinances 
which  shall  have  the  effect  of  law  so  long  as  they  do 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


53 


not  contravene  any  existing  law.  The  article  authorising 
these  ordinances  defines  that  they  shall  only  be  promul- 
gated in  consequence  of  an  urgent  necessity  to  maintain 
public  safety  or  to  avert  public  calamities,  and  all  such 
ordinances  must  be  laid  before  the  Diet  at  its  next  sitting, 
and  in  the  event  of  the  same  not  being  approved  they 
become  null  and  void. 

To  my  mind,  one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  of 
the  Constitution  is  that  which  lays  down  succinctly  and 
tersely  the  rights  and  duties  of  Japanese  subjects.  In 
this  section  there  are  contained  within  about  fifty  lines 
the  declaration  of  innumerable  rights  for  which  mankind 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  during  many  hundreds  of 
years  fought  and  bled  and  endured  much  suffering.  Just 
let  me  mention  a few  of  them.  No  Japanese  subject  shall 
be  arrested,  detained,  tried  or  punished  unless  according 
to  law.  Except  as  provided  by  law  the  house  of  no 
Japanese  subject  shall  be  entered  or  searched  without 
his  consent.  Except  in  the  cases  provided  by  law,  the 
secrecy  of  the  letters  of  every  Japanese  subject  shall 
remain  inviolate.  The  right  of  property  of  every  Japanese 
subject  shall  remain  inviolate.  Japanese  subjects  shall 
enjoy  freedom  of  religious  belief.  Japanese  subjects 
shall  enjoy  liberty  of  speech,  writing,  publication,  public 
meetings  and  associations.  Japanese  subjects  may  present 
petitions.  We  have  in  these  few  brief  provisoes  the 
sum  total  of  everything  that,  in  effect,  constitutes  the 
liberty  of  the  subject. 

The  Diet  of  Japan,  like  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain, 
consists  of  two  Houses — a House  of  Peers  and  a House 
of  Representatives.  The  House  of  Peers  is  composed 
of  (i)  the  members  of  the  Imperial  family,  (2)  Princes 
and  Marquises,  (3)  Counts,  Viscounts  and  Barons  who 


54 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


are  elected  thereto  by  the  members  of  their  respective 
orders,  (4)  persons  who  have  been  specially  nominated 
by  the  Emperor  on  account  of  meritorious  service  or  by 
reason  of  their  erudition,  (5)  persons  who  have  been 
elected,  one  member  for  each  city  and  prefecture  of  the 
Empire,  by  and  from  among  the  taxpayers  of  the  highest 
amount  of  direct  national  taxes  on  land,  industry,  or 
trade,  and  who  had  subsequently  received  the  approval 
of  the  Emperor.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  members  of 
the  Imperial  family,  the  Princes  and  Marquises,  have  an 
inalienable  right  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Peers,  the  latter 
rank  on  attaining  the  age  of  25  years.  In  regard  to 
Counts,  Viscounts,  and  Barons  there  is  no  such  right. 
Those  ranks,  like  the  Peers  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
meet  together  and  select  one-fifth  of  their  number  to 
represent  them  in  the  House  of  Peers  for  a term  of  seven 
years.  Any  subject  over  thirty  years  of  age  nominated 
by  the  Emperor  for  meritorious  service  or  erudition 
remains  a life  member.  Those  returned  by  the  cities 
and  prefectures  remain  members  for  a period  of  seven 
years.  It  is  provided  by  the  Constitution  that  the 
number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Peers  who  are  not 
nobles  shall  not  exceed  the  number  of  the  members 
bearing  a title  of  nobility. 

The  question  of  the  necessity  for  the  existence  of  a 
second  chamber  and  the  composition  thereof  has  been 
keenly  debated  in  this  and  other  countries  of  recent  years. 
It  seems  to  me  that  in  this  matter  Japan  has  hit  upon 
the  happy  mean.  She  has  combined  in  her  House  of 
Peers  the  aristocratic  or  hereditary  element  in  a modified 
degree  with  the  principle  of  life  membership  by  which 
she  secures  the  services  and  counsel  of  the  great  intellects 
of  the  land,  and  such  as  have  done  the  State  good 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


55 


service  in  any  capacity.  At  the  same  time  she  has  not 
excluded  the  representative  element  from  her  second 
chamber — a fact  which  must  largely  obviate  any  possibility 
of  the  House  of  Peers  becoming  a purely  class  body. 
A second  chamber  so  constituted  must  obviously  serve 
an  extremely  useful  purpose  in  preserving  an  equilibrium 
between  political  parties,  in  preventing  the  rushing 
through  and  passing  into  law  of  hastily  considered 
measures.  For  the  composition  of  her  second  chamber, 
Japan  has  taken  all  human  means  possible  to  obtain 
whatever  is  representative  of  the  stability,  the  intellect, 
the  enterprise  and  the  patriotism  of  the  country. 

The  composition  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  which 
answers  to  our  House  of  Commons,  is  as  interesting  as 
that  of  the  Upper  Chamber.  When  the  Constitution  was 
first  promulgated  the  principle  of  small  electoral  districts 
obtained,  one  member  being  elected  for  each  district. 
This  system  was  found  or  believed  to  be  faulty,  and 
hence,  after  some  years’  experience,  large  electoral  districts 
combined  with  a single  vote  have  been  instituted.  It  may 
be  interesting  to  relate  that  both  systems,  the  large  and 
the  small  districts,  were  drafted  by  an  Englishman,  Mr. 
Thomas  Hair.  Cities  whose  population  exceeds  30,000 
are  formed  into  separate  electoral  districts  while  a city 
with  less  than  30,000  inhabitants  is,  with  its  suburbs, 
constituted  a district.  The  number  of  members  allowed 
to  each  district  depends  on  the  population.  For  a 
population  of  130,000  or  under  one  member  is  allowed, 
and  for  every  additional  65,000  persons  above  the 
former  number  an  additional  member  is  allotted.  The 
number  of  members  in  the  House  of  Representatives  is 
381,  or  little  over  half  that  of  which  our  House  of 
Commons  consists.  The  population  of  the  two  countries 


56 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


is  almost  identical,  and  experience  serves  to  show  that  the 
number  of  Members  of  Parliament  in  Japan  is  sufficiently 
numerous  for  all  practical  purposes  and  that  any  material 
addition  thereto  would  be  more  likely  to  impede  than  to 
accelerate  the  wheels  of  legislative  progress.  Neither  the 
Japanese  Constitution  nor  the  Electoral  Law  makes  any 
provision  for  the  representation  of  minorities,  that  aim  of 
so  many  well-meaning  persons  in  different  countries.  In 
Japan  the  majority  rules  as  everywhere,  and  minorities 
must  submit. 

Manhood  suffrage  is  not  yet  a fait  accompli  in  Japan. 
Under  the  present  law  to  qualify  a Japanese  subject  to 
exercise  the  franchise  he  must  pay  15  yen  (about  30s.) 
or  more,  indirect  taxation.  Only  a Japanese  subject  can 
vote  at  elections.  No  foreigner  has  any  electoral  rights, 
but  if  he  becomes  a naturalised  Japanese  subject  he 
obtains  all  the  privileges  appertaining  to  that  position. 

Each  House  of  Parliament  in  Japan  possesses  a 
president  and  vice-president,  who  are  elected  by  the 
members.  The  president  of  each  House  receives  an 
annual  allowance  of  4,000  yen  (about  ;^^40o)  and  the 
vice-president  2,000  yen  (about  £,206).  The  payment  of 
Members  of  Parliament  is  in  vogue  in  Japan.  The  elected 
and  nominated,  but  not  the  hereditary,  members  of  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  each  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  receives  an  annual  allowance  of  800  yen 
(about  ;£"8o).  They  are  also  paid  travelling  expenses  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  on  the  subject.  It  may 
be  interesting  to  state  that  there  is  a clause  in  the 
Constitution  which  enacts  that  the  president,  vice-president, 
and  members  of  the  two  Houses  who  are  entitled  to 
annual  allowances  shall  not  be  permitted  to  decline  the 
same ! It  says  much  for  the  estimate  of  patriotism 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


57 


entertained  in  Japan  when  the  Constitution  was  pro- 
mulgated that  such  a clause  as  this  should  have  been 
considered  necessary. 

Debate  in  both  the  Japanese  Houses  of  Parliament  is 
free  and  the  proceedings  public.  There  will  be  no 
occasion  for  the  uprising  of  a Wilkes  in  Japan  to  obtain 
permission  to  publish  Parliamentary  Debates.  The 
Constitution,  however,  contains  a proviso  for  the  sitting 
of  either  House  with  closed  doors  upon  the  wish  of  the 
president  or  of  not  less  than  ten  members,  the  same 
being  agreed  to  by  the  House,  or  upon  the  demand  of 
the  Government  with  or  without  the  consent  of  the  House. 
When  in  the  former  event  a motion  for  a secret  sitting  is 
made,  strangers  have  to  withdraw  from  the  House  and 
the  motion  is  voted  on  without  debate.  The  proceedings 
of  a secret  meeting  of  either  Chamber  are  not  allowed  to  be 
published. 

The  Japanese  Constitution,  which  is  certainly  a 
document  containing  not  only  provisions  of  an  epoch- 
making  nature  but  most  elaborate  details  in  regard  to 
even  minor  matters,  includes  in  seven  or  eight  lines  one 
or  two  excellent  rules  in  regard  to  what  is  termed  “ The 
Passing  of  the  Budget.”  Under  these  rules,  when  the 
Budget  is  introduced  into  the  House  of  Representatives 
the  Committee  thereon  must  finish  the  examination  of  it 
within  fifteen  days  and  report  thereon  to  the  House, 
while  no  motion  for  any  amendment  in  the  Budget 
can  be  made  the  subject  of  debate  unless  it  is  supported 
by  at  least  thirty  members. 

The  Constitution  of  Japan,  as  I have  remarked,  contains 
a vast  amount  of  detail.  The  framers  of  that  Constitution 
seem  to  have  been  endowed  with  an  abnormal  amount  of 
prevision.  In  fact  they  foresaw  the  possibility  of  occur- 


58 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


fences  and  made  provision  for  those  occurrences  that 
nations  which  are,  or  which  consider  themselves  to  be,  more 
highly  civilised  have  not  yet  taken  any  adequate  steps  to 
deal  with.  For  example.  Article  92  of  the  Constitution 
enacts  that  in  neither  House  of  Parliament  shall  the  use  of 
coarse  language  or  personalities  be  allowed,  while  Article 
93  declares  that  when  any  member  has  been  vilified  or 
insulted  either  in  the  House  or  in  a meeting  of  a Com- 
mittee he  shall  appeal  to  the  House  and  demand  that 
proper  measures  shall  be  taken.  There  shall,  it  is  decreed, 
be  no  retaliation  among  members.  The  Constitution  also 
contains  several  salutary  regulations  in  reference  to  the 
disciplinary  punishment  of  members. 

The  establishment  of  a Parliament  in  Japan  has  produced 
parties  and  a party  system.  I suppose  that  was  inevitable. 
In  every  country  there  is,  and  as  human  nature  is  con- 
stituted there  always  will  be,  two  parties  representative  of 
two  phases  of  the  human  mind : the  party  in  a hurry  to 
effect  progress  because  it  deems  progress  desirable,  and 
the  party  that  desires  to  cling  as  long  as  possible  to  the 
ancient  ways  because  it  knows  them  and  has  had 
experience  of  them  and  looks  askance  at  experiments — 
experiments  for  which  that  somewhat  hackneyed  phrase 
a “ leap  in  the  dark  ” has  long  done  service.  I have  no 
intention,  as  I said  in  the  Preface,  of  dealing  at  all  with 
Japanese  politics.  There  is  no  doubt  a good  deal  of  heat, 
and  the  resultant  friction,  evoked  in  connection  with 
politics  in  Japan  as  elsewhere.  Perhaps  this  young  nation — 
that  is,  young  from  a parliamentary  point  of  view — takes 
politics  too  seriously.  Time  will  remedy  that  defect,  if  it 
be  a defect.  At  the  same  time,  I may  express  the  opinion 
that,  however  severe  party  strife  may  be  in  Japan,  and 
though  the  knocks  given  and  received  in  the  course 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


59 


thereof  are  hard  and  some  of  the  language  not  only 
vigorous  but  violent,  the  members  of  all  parties  have  at 
heart  and  as  their  objective  point  the  advancement  of 
Japan  and  the  good  of  the  country  generally. 

The  Japanese  Constitution,  though  not  a very  lengthy, 
is  such  an  all-embracing  document  that  in  a hurried  survey 
of  it,  it  is  possible  to  overlook  many  important  features. 
It  provides  for  the  establishment  of  a Privy  Council  to 
deliberate  upon  important  matters  of  State,  but  only  when 
consulted  by  the  Emperor.  It  enforces  the  responsibility 
of  the  Ministers  of  State  for  all  advice  given  to  the 
Emperor  and  decrees  that  all  laws.  Imperial  ordinances 
and  Imperial  rescripts  of  any  kind  relating  to  affairs  of 
State,  must  be  countersigned  by  a Minister  of  State.  The 
Constitution  also  defines  the  position,  authority,  and 
independence  of  the  judges.  That  Constitution  contains 
a proviso  all-important  in  reference  to  the  upright 
administration  of  the  law,  a proviso  which  it  took 
years  of  agitation  to  obtain  in  this  country,  that  no 
judge  shall  be  deprived  of  his  position  unless  by  way 
of  criminal  sentence  or  disciplinary  punishment.  All 
trials  and  judgments  of  the  court  of  law  are  to  be  con- 
ducted publicly.  Provision  is  made,  when  there  exists  any 
fear  of  a trial  in  open  court  being  prejudicial  to  peace  and 
order  or  to  the  maintenance  of  public  morality,  for  the 
same  to  be  held  in  camera.  I may  add,  before  I take  leave 
of  the  Constitution,  with  a view  of  showing  how  all- 
embracing  as  I have  said  are  the  various  matters  dealt 
with  therein,  that  it  defines  and  declares  that  the  style 
of  address  for  the  Emperor  and  Empress  shall  be  His,  Her, 
or  Your  Majesty,  while  that  for  the  Imperial  Princes  and 
Princesses  shall  be  His,  Her,  Their,  or  Your  Highness  or 
Highnesses. 


60 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


In  regard  to  no  matter  connected  with  Japan  have  I 
found  so  large  an  amount  of  misconception  prevalent  as  in 
reference  to  the  position  of  the  Emperor  of  that  country. 
The  divine  descent  which  is  still  sometimes  claimed  for  the 
sovereigns  of  Japan  and  which  has  never,  so  far  as  I know, 
been  officially  repudiated,  has  caused  some  persons  to 
regard  the  Emperor  from  a somewhat  ludicrous  standpoint. 
In  this  very  prosaic  and  materialistic  age,  when  very  few 
persons  have  profound  beliefs  on  any  subject,  the  spectacle 
of  one  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  earth  still  claiming  a divine 
origin  is  one  that  appeals  to  the  ludicrous  susceptibilities 
of  that  vague  entity  “ the  man  in  the  street.”  It  is  not 
well,  however,  that  people  should  criticise  statements  in 
royal  proclamations  or  in  royal  assertions  too  seriously. 
Even  in  this  country  there  are  documents  issued  from  time 
to  time  bearing  the  royal  sign  manual  which  every  one 
regards  as  interesting  but  meaningless  formalities — interest- 
ing because  they  are  a survival  of  mediaeval  documents 
which  meant  something  some  hundreds  of  years  ago  and 
still  remain  though  their  meanings  have  long  since  lapsed. 
And  yet  there  are  persons  in  this  country  who  peruse  such 
documents  and  know  that  they  are  simply  words  signifying 
practically  nothing,  who  severely  criticise  the  assertion  of 
a long-used  title  by  the  Japanese  Emperor  upon  issuing  a 
royal  proclamation.  I am  not  aware  whether  his  Imperial 
Majesty  or  his  Ministers  of  State  implicitly  accept  his  divine 
descent,  but  this  I do  know — that  those  persons  who  regard 
the  present  Emperor  of  Japan  as  a State  puppet,  arrogating 
more  or  less  divine  attributes,  are  labouring  under  a profound 
delusion.  There  is  no  abler  man  in  Japan  at  the  present 
moment.  There  is  no  abler  man  among  the  sovereigns  of 
the  world.  In  fact,  I should  be  inclined  to  place  the 
Emperor  of  Japan  at  the  head  of  the  world’s  great  states- 


THE  CONSTITUTION 


61 


men.  He  is  no  monarch  content  to  reign  but  not  to  govern, 
concerned  simply  about  ceremonial  and  the  fripperies  and 
gew-gaws  of  royalty.  He  is  a constitutional  sovereign 
certainly.  He  has  always  shown  the  deepest  respect  for 
the  Constitution  ever  since  its  promulgation,  and  never  in 
the  slightest  degree  attempted  to  infringe  or  override  any 
portion  of  it.  At  the  same  time  he  is  an  effective  force  in 
the  Government  of  Japan.  There  is  nothing  too  great  or 
too  little  in  the  Empire  or  in  the  relations  of  the  Empire 
with  foreign  Powers  for  his  ken.  He,  in  a word,  has  the 
whole  reins  of  government  in  his  hands,  and  he  exercises 
over  every  department  and  detail  of  it  a minute  and  rigid 
supervision  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  largely  responsible  for 
the  efficiency  of  the  internal  administration  of  the  country 
as  also  for  the  place  that  Japan  holds  among  the  Great 
Powers  of  the  world. 

I cannot  leave  a consideration  of  this  subject  without 
referring  to  the  assistance  rendered  to  the  Emperor  by,  as 
also  to  the  debt  Japan  owes  to,  some  six  or  seven  great 
men  in  that  country  whose  names  I shall  not  inscribe  here 
because  to  do  so  would  be  to  some  extent  invidious, 
several  of  whom  do  not,  as  a matter  of  fact,  hold  any  formal 
position  in  the  Government  of  the  country.  The  wisdom 
of  these  men  has  been  a great  boon  for  such  a country  as 
Japan,  and  if  she  is  not  now  as  sensible  of  it  as  she  ought  to 
be  future  ages  will,  I feel  sure,  recognise  the  debt  that  Japan 
owes  to  them.  Some  persons  with  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  Japan  have  told  me  that  it  is  not,  after  all,  a constitutional 
State  but  in  effect,  though  not  in  name,  an  oligarchy.  This 
word  has  in  the  past  often  had  unpleasant  associations, 
and  one  does  not  like  to  apply  it  in  reference  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  a progressive  and  enlightened  country.  Still  the 
word  strictly  means  government  by  a small  body  of  men. 


62 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  if  in  those  men  is  included  the  larger  part  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  country,  and  they  exercise  their  power 
solely  and  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  country,  I am 
not  certain  that  such  a form  of  government  is  not  the  best 
that  could  be  devised.  Of  course,  humanity  being  as  it  is, 
an  oligarchy,  has  its  dangers  and  its  temptations.  I will 
say,  however,  of  the  wise  men  of  Japan,  the  men  to  whom 
I have  been  referring  and  who  whether  in  office  or  out  of 
office  have  exercised,  and  must  continue  to  exercise,  a 
marked  and  predominant  influence  on  the  government  of 
the  country,  that  their  patriotism  has  never  been  called  in 
question,  and  no  one  has  at  any  time  suggested  that  they 
were  influenced  by  self-seeking  or  other  unworthy  motives, 
or  had  any  aspirations  save  the  material  and  moral 
advancement  of  Japan  and  her  elevation  to  a prominent 
position  among  the  Great  Powers  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  PEOPLE — THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS 
FTER  all,  the  life  of  the  people  is  the  most  interesting, 


as  I think  it  is  the  most  instructive,  matter  con- 
nected with  any  country.  It  is  assuredly  impossible  to 
form  a clear  or  indeed  any  correct  idea  in  regard  to  a 
nation  unless  we  know  something  of  the  manners  and 
customs,  the  daily  life,  the  amusements,  the  vices  of  its 
people.  Unless  we  can,  as  it  were,  take  a bird’s-eye  view 
of  the  people  at  work  and  at  play,  at  their  daily  avocations 
in  their  homes,  see  them  as  they  come  into  the  world,  as 
they  go  through  life’s  pilgrimage,  and,  finally,  as  they  pay 
the  debt  of  nature  and  are  carried  to  their  last  resting-place 
in  accordance  with  the  national  customs,  with  the  respect 
or  the  indifference  the  nation  shows  for  its  dead. 

If  one  is  to  arrive  at  a correct  idea  regarding  the  life  and 
habits  of  the  Japanese  people  it  is,  I think,  essential  to  get 
away  from  the  ports  and  large  towns  where  they  have  been 
influenced  by  or  brought  much  into  contact  with  Europeans, 
and  see  them  as  they  really  are,  free  from  conventionalities, 
artificialities,  and  the  effects  of  Western  habits  and  customs 
which  have  undoubtedly  been  pronounced  in  those  centres 
where  Europeans  congregate. 

The  house  in  Japan  does  not  play  the  important  part  it 


63 


64 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


does  in  this  country.  When  a man  in  England,  whatever 
his  station  in  life  may  be,  contemplates  taking  a wife  and 
settling  down,  as  the  phrase  goes,  the  home  and  the 
contents  thereof  become  an  all-important  matter  and  one 
needing  much  thought  and  discussion.  In  Japan  there  is 
no  such  necessity.  A Japanese  house  is  easily  run  up — 
and  taken  down.  The  “ walls  ” are  constructed  of  paper 
and  slide  in  grooves  between  the  beams  of  the  floor  which 
is  raised  slightly  above  the  ground.  The  partitions 
between  the  rooms  can  easily  be  taken  down  and  an 
additional  room  as  easily  run  up.  The  house  is,  as  a rule, 
only  one  storey  high.  The  carpets  consist  of  matting  only, 
and  practically  no  furniture  is  necessary.  A witty  writer 
on  Japan  has  aptly  and  wittily  remarked  that  “ an  English- 
man’s house  may  be  his  castle,  a Japanese’s  house  is  his 
bedroom  and  his  bedroom  is  a passage.”  The  occupant  of 
this  house  sits  on  the  floor,  sleeps  on  the  floor,  and  has  his 
meals  on  the  floor.  The  floor  is  kept  clean  by  the  simple 
process  of  the  inhabitants  removing  their  boots,  or  what 
do  duty  for  boots,  and  leaving  them  at  the  entrance,  so  as 
to  avoid  soiling  the  matting  with  which  the  floor  of  each 
room  is  covered.  This  is  a habit  which  has  much  to 
commend  it,  and  is,  I suggest,  worthy  of  imitation  by  other 
countries.  After  all,  the  Japanese  mode  of  life  has  a great 
deal  to  be  said  in  its  favour.  It  seems  strange  at  first,  but 
after  the  visitor  to  the  country  has  got  over  his  initial  fit  of 
surprise  at  the  difference  between  the  Japanese  domestic 
economy  and  his  own,  he  will,  if  he  be  a man  of  unpreju- 
diced mind,  admit  that  it  certainly  has  its  “ points.” 

The  bulk  of  the  population  is  poor,  very  poor,  but  that 
poverty  is  not  emphasised  in  their  homes  to  the  same 
extent  as  in  European  countries.  The  house — a doll’s 
house  some  irreverent  people  term  it — with  paper  partitions 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  65 


doing  duty  for  walls,  white  matting,  a few  cooking  utensils 
costs  only  a few  shillings.  It  can,  as  I have  said,  be  taken 
down  and  run  up  easily,  and  enlarged  almost  indefinitely. 
The  inhabitants  sleep  on  the  floor,  and  the  bedding  consists 
not  as  with  us  of  mattresses,  palliasses,  and  other  more  or 
less  insanitary  articles,  but  of  a number,  great  or  small, 
and  elaborate  or  otherwise,  in  accordance  with  the  means 
of  the  owner,  of  what  I will  term  quilts.  The  Japanese 
pillow  is  a fearful  and  wonderful  article.  I can  never 
imagine  how  it  was  evolved  and  why  it  has  remained  so 
long  unimproved.  It  is  made  of  wood  and  there  is  a 
receptacle  for  the  head.  The  European  who  uses  it  finds 
that  it  effectually  banishes  sleep,  while  the  ordinary 
Japanese  is  apparently  unable  to  sleep  without  it.  In 
most  houses,  however  poor,  a kakemono,  or  wall  picture,  is 
to  be  seen.  It  is  usually  the  only  decoration  save  an 
occasional  vase  containing  flowers,  and  of  course  flowers 
themselves,  which  are  in  evidence  everywhere.  Light  is, 
or  used  to  be,  given  by  a “ lamp,”  a kind  of  Chinese  lantern 
on  a lacquer  stand,  the  light  being  given  by  a rush  candle. 
I am  sorry,  however,  to  say  that  these  in  some  respects 
artistic  lanterns  are  being  generally  replaced  by  hideous 
petroleum  or  kerosene  lamps,  not  only  ugly  but  a constant 
source  of  danger  in  these  flimsy  houses. 

The  most  important  accessory  of  nearly  all  Japanese 
houses  is  the  bath-room,  or  wash-house,  to  use  a more 
appropriate  term.  The  hot  bath  is  a universal  institution 
in  the  country,  and  nearly  every  Japanese  man  and  woman, 
whatever  his  or  her  station  in  life,  washes  the  body 
thoroughly  in  extremely  hot  water  more  than  once  daily. 
The  Japanese,  as  regards  the  washing  of  their  persons,  are 
the  cleanest  race  in  the  world,  but  many  hygienic  laws  are 
set  at  defiance  possibly  because  they  are  not  understood. 


66 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


A gradual  improvement  is,  however,  taking  place  in  these 
matters,  and  the  cleanliness  as  regards  the  body  and  their 
houses,  which  is  such  a pleasing  feature  of  the  people,  will 
no  doubt  extend  in  other  directions  also. 

Japanese  houses  are  habitable  enough  in  warm  weather, 
but  in  winter-time  they  are,  as  might  be  expected,  ex- 
ceedingly cold,  especially  as  the  arrangements  for  warming 
them  are  of  an  extremely  primitive  nature.  Those  com- 
plaints which  are  induced  or  produced  by  cold  are 
prevalent  in  the  country. 

The  food  of  the  people  is  as  simple  as  their  houses,  and 
as  inexpensive.  A Japanese  family  it  has  been  calculated 
can  live  on  about  £iO  a.  year.  A little  fish,  rice,  and 
vegetables,  with  incessant  tea,  is  the  national  dietary. 
The  people  living  on  this  meagre  fare  are,  on  the  whole, 
a strong  and  sturdy  race,  but  it  is  questionable  if  the 
national  physique  would  not  be  vastly  improved  were  the 
national  diet  also.  I have  touched  on  this  matter  else- 
where, so  I need  not  refer  to  it  further  here.  Tobacco  is 
the  constant  consoler  of  the  Japanese  in  all  his  troubles. 
Why  he  smokes  such  diminutive  pipes  I have  never  been 
able  to  understand.  They  only  hold  sufficient  tobacco  for 
a few  whiffs,  and  when  staying  in  a Japanese  house  the 
constant  tap,  tap,  tap  of  the  owner’s  pipe  as  he  empties 
the  ashes  out  prior  to  refilling  it  reminds  one  of  the  wood- 
pecker. 

There  are  doubtless  some  persons,  especially  those 
persons  who  consider  that  to  enjoy  life  a superabundance 
or  even  a plethora  of  material  comforts  are  necessary,  who, 
after  reading  a description  of  the  home  and  fare  of  the 
Japanese  peasant,  will  assume  that  his  life  is  a burden  and 
that  he  derives  no  enjoyment  whatever  from  it.  Nothing 
could  be  more  erroneous.  There  is  probably  not  a more 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  67 


joyous  being  on  the  face  of  the  globe  than  the  Japanese. 
His  wants  are  few,  and  in  that  fact  probably  lies  his 
happiness.  He  does  not  find  his  enjoyment  in  material 
things,  but  he  has  his  enjoyment  all  the  same,  and  I think 
on  the  whole  that  he  probably  gets  more  out  of  life  and  has 
more  fitting  ideas  regarding  it  than  the  Englishman  who 
considers  an  abundance  of  beef  and  beer  its  objective  point. 

To  me  one  of  the  most  pleasing  features  of  Japan  is  the 
fondness  and  tenderness  of  the  Japanese  of  all  ranks  and 
classes  for  children.  The  Japanese  infant  is  the  tyrant  of 
Japan,  and  nothing  is  good  enough  for  it.  The  women,  as 
most  people  know,  carry  their  babies  on  their  backs  instead 
of  in  their  arms.  A baby  is,  however,  not  so  for  very 
long  in  Japan.  Very  young  Japanese  girls  may  be  seen 
carrying  their  little  baby  brothers  and  sisters  behind  their 
backs,  and  thus  learning  their  maternal  duties  in  advance. 
The  position  of  women  in  Japan,  married  women,  is  not  so 
satisfactory  as  it  ought  to  be.  The  laws  in  regard  to 
divorce  are,  I think,  too  easy,  and  a Japanese  possesses 
facilities  for  getting  rid  of  his  wife  which  does  not  tend  to 
the  conservation  of  home-life.  The  custom,  which  was  at 
one  time  universal,  of  women  blackening  their  teeth,  has 
largely  diminished,  and  will  no  doubt  in  due  course  become 
obsolete.  The  idea  which  underlay  it  was  that  the  woman 
should  render  herself  unattractive  to  other  men.  There 
was  no  object  in  having  such  an  adventitious  attraction  as 
pearly  teeth  for  her  husband,  who  might  be  presumed  to 
know  what  her  attractions  really  were.  The  Japanese 
woman  in  her  education  has  inculcated  three  obediences, 
viz.,  obedience  to  parents,  obedience  to  husband,  and  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  obedience  to  son.  Although  the 
Japanese  girl  comes  of  age  at  14  she  cannot  marry  without 
her  father’s  consent  until  she  is  25. 


68 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


The  dress  of  the  Japanese  people  is  so  well  known  that 
it  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  describe  it.  The  kimono  is, 
I think,  a graceful  costume,  and  I am  very  sorry  that  so 
many  women  in  the  upper  classes  have  discarded  the 
national  dress  for  European  garments.  Japanese  women 
who  wear  the  national  costume  do  not  don  gloves.  If 
their  hands  are  cold  they  place  them  in  their  sleeves, 
which  are  long  and  have  receptacles  containing  many  and 
various  things,  including  a pocket-handkerchief,  which  is 
usually  made  of  paper,  and  sometimes  a pot  of  lip-salve  to 
colour  the  lips  to  the  orthodox  tint.  The  poorer  classes, 
of  course,  do  not  go  in  for  such  frivolities.  Talking  of 
paper  handkerchiefs  reminds  me  of  the  innumerable  uses 
to  which  paper  is  put  in  Japan  ; it  serves  for  umbrellas 
and  even  for  coats,  and  is  altogether  a necessity  of  exist- 
ence almost  for  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

I have  referred  to  the  lack  of  what  may  be  deemed 
material  comforts  in  Japan,  as  also  to  the  fact  that  the 
Japanese  are  a joyous  race  but  that  their  enjoyment  is  not 
of  a material  nature.  They  are,  in  fact,  easily  amused, 
and  their  enjoyment  takes  forms  which  would  hardly 
appeal  to  a less  emotional  people.  In  the  large  towns 
the  theatre  is  a perennial  source  of  amusement.  I have 
referred  to  the  theatre  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  the 
drama,  and  remarked  therein  that  the  excess  of  by-play, 
irrelevant  by-play,  in  a Japanese  drama  was  rather 
wearisome  to  the  European  spectator.  Not  so  to  the 
Japanese.  He  positively  revels  in  it.  The  theatre  is  for 
him  something  real  and  moving.  He  has,  whatever  his 
age,  all  the  zest  of  a youth  for  plays  and  spectacles.  How 
far  the  Europeanising  of  the  country,  which  is  having,  and 
is  bound  still  further  to  have,  an  effect  on  dramatic  art, 
will  affect  the  amusements  of  the  people  and  their  prone- 


THE  PEOPLE— THEm  LIFE  AND  HABITS  69 


ness  for  the  theatre  remains  to  be  seen.  There  is  so  far 
nothing  approaching  the  English  music-hall  in  Japan. 
Let  me  express  a hope  that  there  never  will  be.  It  is  a 
long  cry  from  the  graceful  Geisha  to  the  inanities  and 
banalities  which  appear  to  be  the  stock-in-trade  of  music- 
hall  performances  in  this  country.  These  appear  to  meet 
a home  want,  but  I sincerely  trust  they  will  be  reserved 
for  home  delectation  and  not  be  inflicted  in  any  guise 
upon  Japan.  The  matter  of  music-halls  suggests  some 
reference  to  the  ideas  of  the  Japanese  in  respect  of  music. 
The  educated  classes  appear  to  have  an  appreciation  of 
European  music,  but  Japanese  music  requires,  I should 
say,  an  educational  process.  Some  superficial  European 
writers  declare  that  the  Japanese  have  not  the  least  con- 
ception of  either  harmony  or  melody,  and  that  what 
passes  for  music  in  the  country  is  simply  discord.  It 
might  have  struck  these  writers  that  criticism  of  this  kind 
in  reference  to  a most  artistic  people  could  hardly  be 
correct.  Any  one  who  has  listened  to  the  Geisha  or 
heard  the  singing  of  trained  Japanese  would  certainly  not 
agree  in  such  statements  as  I have  referred  to.  Japanese 
music  is  like  Japanese  art — it  has  its  own  characteristics 
and  will,  I am  sure,  repay  being  carefully  studied. 

Festivals  and  feasts,  religious  and  otherwise,  which  are 
many  and  varied,  afford  some  relaxation  for  the  people. 
There  are,  according  to  a list  compiled,  some  28  religious 
festivals,  16  national  holidays,  and  14  popular  feast-days. 
New  Year’s  Day  is  termed  Shihohai,  and  on  it  the 
Emperor  prays  to  all  his  ancestors  for  a peaceful  reign. 
Two  days  subsequently,  on  Genjisai,  he  makes  offerings  to 
him  and  all  his  Imperial  ancestors,  while  two  days  later 
still  all  Government  officers  make  official  calls.  These  are 
legal  holidays.  The  iith  of  February  (Kigen  Setsu)  and 


70 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  3rd  of  April  (Jimmu-Tenno-sai)  are  observed  as  the 
anniversaries  respectively  of  the  accession  to  the  throne  and 
the  death  of  Jimmu-Tenno,  the  first  Emperor.  The  17th 
of  October  (Shinsho-sai)  is  the  national  harvest  festival. 
On  this  day  the  Emperor  offers  the  first  crop  of  the  year 
to  his  divine  ancestor,  Tenshoko  Daijin.  It  may  be  inter- 
esting to  record  that  the  25  th  of  December  (Christmas  Day), 
is  observed  as  a holiday  by  the  Custom-house  department 
“ for  the  accommodation  of  foreign  employees.” 

The  popular  festivals  are  equally  interesting  and  curious. 
The  3rd  of  March  (Oshinasama),  is  the  girls’  or  dolls’  festival, 
while  the  5th  of  May  (Osekku),  is  the  boys’  festival,  or  Feast 
of  Flags.  A three  days’  festival,  i3th-i5thof  July  (Bon 
Matsuri),  is  the  All  Souls’  Day  of  Japan  in  honour  of  the 
sacred  dead.  The  9th  of  September  (Kikku  No  Sekku),  is 
the  festival  of  chrysanthemums,  the  national  flower,  and 
the  20th  of  November,  appropriately  near  the  Lord  Mayor 
of  London’s  day,  is  the  festival  held  by  the  merchants  in 
honour  of  Ebisuko,  the  God  of  Wealth.  The  Feast  of 
Flags — the  boys’  festival — is  one  much  esteemed  by  the 
Japanese  people.  On  the  occasion  of  it  every  house  the 
owner  of  which  has  been  blessed  with  sons  displays  a 
paper  carp  floating  from  a flagstaff.  If  a male  child  has 
come  to  the  establishment  during  the  year  the  carp  is 
extra  large.  It  is  considered  a reproach  to  any  married 
woman  not  to  have  this  symbol  flying  outside  the  house 
on  the  occasion  of  this  feast.  Why  the  carp  has  been 
selected  as  a symbol  is  a matter  upon  which  there  is  much 
difference  of  opinion.  The  carp,  it  is  said,  is  emblematic 
of  the  youth  who  overcomes  all  the  difficulties  that  lie  in 
his  path  during  life,  but  I confess  I rather  fail  to  see  what 
connection  there  is  between  this  fish  and  such  an  energetic 
youth.  On  this  day  the  boys  have  dolls  representative  of 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  71 


Japanese  heroes  and  personages  of  the  past  as  well  as  toy 
swords  and  toy  armour.  On  the  girls’  festival — the  Feast 
of  Dolls — there  is  no  outward  and  visible  display.  The 
fact  of  a girl  having  been  born  in  the  family  is  not  con- 
sidered a matter  to  be  boasted  of.  On  this  feast  there  is 
a great  display  indoors  of  dolls.  As  a matter  of  fact  dolls 
form  a very  important  part  of  the  heirlooms  of  every 
Japanese  family  of  any  importance.  When  a girl  is  born 
a pair  of  dolls  are  procured  for  her.  Dolls  are  much 
more  seriously  treated  than  they  are  in  European  countries, 
where  they  are  bought  with  the  full  knowledge  that  they 
will  quickly  be  destroyed.  In  Japan  the  dolls  are  packed 
away  for  nearly  the  whole  of  the  year  in  the  go-down,  and 
are  only  produced  at  this  particular  festival.  I may  add 
that  not  only  the  dolls  themselves  but  furniture  for  them 
are  largely  in  request  in  Japan,  and  that  this  dolls’  festival 
is  really  a very  important  function  in  the  national  life. 

New  Year’s  festival  is  the  great  day  of  the  year  in  Japan. 
In  this  respect  it  approximates  to  our  Christmas.  Not 
only  the  houses  but  the  streets  are  decorated,  and  every 
town  in  the  land  has  at  this  particular  season  an  unusually 
festive  appearance.  At  this  period  visits  are  exchanged, 
and  New  Year’s  presents  are  the  correct  thing. 

On  the  Bon  Matsuri,  or  All  Souls’  Day,  the  Japanese 
have  a custom  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  obtains  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries  on  the  2nd  of  November.  On 
the  first  night  of  the  feast  the  tombs  of  the  dead  during 
the  past  year  are  adorned  with  Japanese  lanterns.  On  the 
second  night  the  remaining  tombs  are  likewise  decorated, 
while  on  the  third  night  it  is  the  custom,  although  it  is 
now  somewhat  falling  into  desuetude,  for  the  relatives  of 
the  dead  to  launch  toy  vessels  made  of  straw  laden  with 
fruit  and  coins  as  well  as  a lantern.  These  toy  ships 


72 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


have  toy  sails,  and  the  dead  are  supposed  to  sail  in  them 
to  oblivion  until  next  year’s  festival.  These  toy  ships,  of 
course,  catch  fire  from  the  lanterns.  Not  so  very  many 
years  ago  the  spectacle  of  these  little  vessels  catching  fire 
on  some  large  bay  was  a very  pretty  one,  I am  afraid 
this  feast  has  a tendency  to  die  out — a fact  which  is  greatly 
to  be  regretted,  as  there  is  behind  it  much  that  is  poetical 
and  beautiful. 

Wrestling,  as  most  people  know,  is  a favourite  amusement 
of  the  Japanese,  and  wrestling  matches  excite  quite  as 
much  interest  as  boxing  used  to  do  in  this  country.  Of 
late  years  English  people  have  taken  much  interest  in 
Ju  Jitsu,  The  Japanese  style  of  wrestling  is  certainly 
peculiar,  and  training  does  not  apparently  enter  so  much 
into  it  as  is  considered  essential  in  reference  to  displays  of 
strength  or  skill  in  this  country.  One  sometimes  sees 
very  expert  Japanese  wrestlers  who  are  not  only  fat  but 
bloated. 

The  Japanese  have  long  been  celebrated  archers,  and 
archery,  though  it  is  largely  on  the  wane,  is  much  more  in 
evidence  than  is  the  case  in  this  country.  It  is  an  art 
in  which  a great  many  of  the  people  excel,  and  archery 
grounds  still  exist  in  many  of  the  towns. 

Marriages  and  christenings  have  important  parts  in  the 
social  life  of  the  people.  These  ceremonies,  however,  are 
not  quite  so  obtrusive  as  they  are  in  Western  lands.  As 
regards  christenings,  if  I may  use  such  a term  in  reference 
to  a non-Christian  people,  the  first,  or  almost  the  first, 
ceremony  in  reference  to  the  infant  in  Japan  is,  or  used 
to  be,  the  shaving  of  its  head  thirty  days  after  birth,  after 
which  it  was  taken  to  the  temple  to  make  its  first  offering, 
a pecuniary  one,  to  the  gods.  This  shaving  of  babies  is 
no  doubt  diminishing,  at  any  rate  in  the  large  towns. 


STREET  SCENE  OX  XEW  YEAR'S  DAY 


FROM  A PRINT  BY  HIROSHIGE 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  73 


Indeed,  everything  in  regard  to  the  dressing  of  and  dealing 
with  the  hair  in  Japan  is,  if  I may  use  the  term,  in  a state 
of  transition. 

Some  writers  on  Japan  have  been  impressed  by  the  fact 
that  the  Japanese  appear  to  be  more  concerned  about  the 
dead  than  the  living.  Ancestor  worship  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  religious  economy  of  Japanese  life,  and,  as  I 
have  shown,  the  All  Souls’  Day  in  Japan  is  an  important 
national  festival.  But  the  respect  that  these  people  have 
for  their  dead  is  not  shown  only  on  one  or  two  or  three 
days  of  the  year ; it  may  be  deduced  from  a visit  to  any 
of  their  cemeteries.  These  are  nearly  always  picturesquely 
situated,  adorned  with  beautiful  trees,  and  exquisitely  kept 
in  order.  Indeed,  the  cemeteries  are  in  striking  contrast 
to  those  of  European  countries.  The  hideous  and  inartistic 
tombstones  and  monuments,  the  urns  and  angels,  and  the 
stereotyped  conventionalities  of  graveyards  in  this  country 
are  all  absent.  There  is  usually  only  a simple  tablet  over 
each  grave  bearing  the  name  of  the  deceased  and  the  date 
of  his  death,  and  occasionally  some  simple  word  or  two 
summing  up  succinctly  those  qualities  he  had,  or  was  sup- 
posed to  have,  possessed.  Near  each  grave  is  usually  a 
flower-vase,  and  it  is  nearly  always  filled  with  fresh  flowers. 
As  I have  remarked,  flowers  play  an  important  part  in 
the  lives  of  the  Japanese  people,  and  with  them  no  part  is 
more  important  than  the  decoration  of  the  graves  of  their 
dead.  In  England  flowers  also  play  an  important  part  in 
connection  with  the  dead — on  the  day  of  the  funeral.  It 
is  then  considered  the  correct  thing  for  every  one  who 
knew  the  deceased  to  send  a wreath  to  be  placed  upon  his 
coffin.  These  wreaths,  frequently  exceedingly  numerous, 
are  conveyed  to  the  cemetery,  where  they  are  allowed  to 
rot  on  top  of  the  grave.  To  me  there  is  no  more  mournful 


74 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


sight  than  a visit  to  a great  London  cemetery,  where  one 
sees  these  rotting  emblems,  which  quite  palpably  meant 
nothing  save  the  practice  of  a conventionality.  The 
Japanese,  however  poor  his  worldly  circumstances  may  be, 
is  not  content  with  flowers,  costly  flowers  on  the  day  of 
the  funeral ; he  places  his  vase  alongside  the  grave  of  the 
departed,  and  by  keeping  that  vase  filled  with  fresh  and 
beautiful  flowers  he  sets  forth  as  far  as  he  possibly  can  his 
feeling  of  respect  for  the  dead  and  the  fact  that  the  dead 
one  still  lives  in  his  memory. 

One  cannot  study,  however  cursorily,  the  lives  of  the 
Japanese  people  on  the  whole  without  being  convinced 
of  the  fact  that  there  is  among  them  not  only  a total 
absence  of  but  no  desire  whatever  for  luxury.  The  whole 
conception  of  life  among  these  people  seems  to  me  to  be 
a healthy  and  a simple  one.  It  is  not  in  any  way,  or  at 
any  rate  to  any  great  extent,  a material  conception.  The 
ordinary  Japanese — the  peasant,  for  example — does  not 
hanker  after  a time  when  he  will  have  more  to  eat  and 
more  to  drink.  He  finds  himself  placed  in  a certain 
position  in  life,  and  he  attempts  to  get  the  best  out  of 
life  that  he  can.  I do  not  suggest,  of  course,  that  the 
Japanese  peasant  has  ever  philosophically  discussed  this 
matter  with  himself  or  perhaps  thought  deeply,  if  at  all, 
about  it.  I am  merely  recording  what  his  view  of  life  is 
judging  by  his  actions.  He,  I feel  confident,  enjoys  life. 
In  some  respects  his  life  no  doubt  is  a hard  one,  but  it  has 
its  alleviations,  and  if  I judge  him  aright  the  ordinary 
Japanese  does  not  let  his  mind  dwell  overmuch  on  his 
hardships,  but  is  content  to  get  what  pleasure  he  can  out 
of  his  surrounding  conditions. 

One  very  pleasing  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  men 
and  women  to  which  I have  already  referred  is  the  habit 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  75 


of  personal  cleanliness.  In  every  town  in  the  country 
public  baths  are  numerous,  and  every  house  of  any  pre- 
tensions has  a bath-room.  The  Japanese  use  extremely 
hot  water  to  wash  in.  The  women  do  not  enter  the  bath 
immediately  upon  undressing,  but  in  the  first  instance, 
throwing  some  pailsful  of  water  over  the  body,  they  sit  on 
the  floor  and  scrub  themselves  with  bran  prior  to  entering 
the  bath,  performing  this  operation  two  or  three  times. 
Men  do  not  indulge  in  a similar  practice,  and  I have  never 
been  able  to  understand  why  this  different  mode  of  bathing 
should  obtain  in  reference  to  the  two  sexes.  In  houses 
possessing  a bath-room  the  bath  consists  merely  of  a wooden 
tub  with  a stove  to  heat  the  water.  The  bath  is  used  by 
the  whole  family  in  succession — father,  mother,  children, 
servants.  Shampooing  also  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  Japanese  system  of  cleanliness.  It  is  not,  as  in  this 
country,  confined  to  the  head,  but  approximates  to  what 
we  term  massage,  and  consists  in  a rubbing  of  the  muscles 
of  the  body — a fact  which  not  only  has  a beneficial  effect 
physically,  but  is  also  efficacious  in  the  direction  of  clean- 
liness. 

Nearly  every  house  in  Japan  possesses  a garden,  and  the 
garden  is  a source  of  perpetual  delight  to  every  Japanese. 
He  is  enabled  to  give  full  vent  therein  to  his  love  of 
flowers.  Some  critics  have  found  fault  with  Japanese 
gardens  on  account  of  their  monotony.  Miniature  lakes, 
grass  plots,  dwarfed  trees,  and  trees  clipped  and  trained 
into  representations  of  objects  animate  and  inanimate  are 
the  prevailing  characteristics.  A similar  remark  might, 
however,  be  made  in  regard  to  the  gardens  of,  say,  London 
suburban  houses,  with  this  exception — that  the  Japanese 
gardens  show  infinitely  more  good  taste  on  the  part  of  the 
cultivators  of  them.  These  little  gardens  throw  a bright- 


76  THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 

ness  into  the  life  of  the  people  which  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate. 

In  the  chapter  which  I have  devoted  to  the  religions  of 
the  Japanese  people,  I have  remarked  that  religion  appears 
to  be  losing  its  influence  upon  the  educated  classes  of  the 
country,  who  are  quickly  developing  into  agnostics.  No 
such  remark  can,  however,  be  made  in  reference  to  the 
great  mass  of  the  Japanese  people.  For  them  religion  is 
an  actuality.  Take  it  out  of  their  lives  and  you  will  take 
much  that  makes  their  lives  not  only  enjoyable  but  endur- 
able. As  a writer  on  Japan  has  somewhat  irreverently’ 
observed,  the  Japanese  “is  very  chummy  with  heaven. 
He  just  as  readily  invokes  the  aid  of  his  household  gods 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  amours  as  in  less  illegitimate  aspira- 
tions. He  regards  them  as  kind  friends  who  will  help,  ' 
rather  than  as  severe  censors  who  have  to  be  propitiated.” 
The  spiritual  aspect  of  the  Deity  has  not,  I think,  entered 
at  all  into  the  conceptions  of  the  ordinary  Japanese.  His 
ideas  in  regard  to  God  or  the  gods — his  pantheon  is  a large 
and  a comprehensive  one — are  altogether  anthropomorphic. 
Every  action  of  his  life,  however  small,  is  in  some  way  or 
other  connected  with  an  unseen  world.  In  this  matter. 
Buddhism  and  Shintoism  have  got  rather  mixed,  and,  as  I 
have  elsewhere  said,  if  the  founder  of  Buddhism  were  re- 
incarnated in  Japan  to-day,  he  would  find  it  difficult  to 
recognise  his  religion  in  some  of  the  developments  of 
Buddhism  as  it  exists  in  Japan.  Nevertheless,  this 
anthropomorphic  idea  of  God,  however  it  may  fit  the 
Japanese  for  the  next  world,  undoubtedly  comforts  him 
in  this.  The  religious  festivals,  which  are  numerous,  are 
gala  days  in  his  life,  and  the  services  of  religion  bring  him 
undoubtedly  much  consolation.  But  he  does  not  of  neces- 
sity go  to  a temple  to  conduct  that  uplifting  of  the  heart 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  77 


which  is,  after  all,  the  best  service  of  man  to  the  Creator. 
Every  house  has  its  little  shrine,  and  although  some 
superior  persons  may  laugh  at  the  act  of  burning  a joss- 
stick,  or  some  other  trivial  act  of  worship,  as  merely 
ignorant  superstition,  I think  the  unprejudiced  man  would 
look  rather  at  the  motive  which  inspired  the  act.  If  this 
poor  ignorant  native  burns  his  joss-stick,  makes  his 
offering  of  a cake,  lights  a lamp  in  front  of  an  image,  or 
takes  part  in  any  other  act  which  in  effect  means  the 
lifting  up  of  his  soul  to  something  higher  and  greater  than 
himself  that  he  can  now  only  see  through  a glass  darkly, 
surely  he  ought  not  to  be  condemned.  At  any  rate  I 
will  pass  no  condemnation  on  him.  Outside  the  accre- 
tions which  have  undoubtedly  come  upon  Buddhism  and 
Shintoism  in  the  many  centuries  they  have  existed  in 
Japan,  I desire  once  more  to  emphasise  the  fact,  to 
which  I have  previously  made  reference,  that  both  these 
religions  have  had,  and  I believe  still  have,  a beneficial 
effect,  from  a moral  point  of  view,  on  the  Japanese 
people.  There  is  nothing  in  their  ethical  code  to  which 
the  most  censorious  person  can  raise  the  slightest  ob- 
jection. They  have  inculcated  on  the  Japanese  people 
through  all  the  ages,  not  only  the  necessity,  but  the 
advisability  of  doing  good.  Buddhism,  in  particular,  has 
preached  the  doctrine  of  doing  good,  not  only  to  one’s 
fellow-creatures  but  to  the  whole  of  animate  nature. 
These  two  religions  have,  in  my  opinion,  placed  the 
ethical  conceptions  of  the  Japanese  people  on  a high 
plane. 

In  my  remarks  on  the  people  of  Japan  I do  not 
think  I can  more  effectually  sum  up  their  salient 
characteristics  than  has  been  done  by  the  writer  of  a 
guide  to  that  country.  “ The  courtly  demeanour  of  the 


78 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


people,”  he  says,  “ is  a matter  of  remark  with  all  who  visit 
Japan,  and  so  universal  is  the  studied  politeness  of  all 
classes  that  the  casual  observer  would  conclude  that  it 
was  innate  and  born  of  the  nature  of  the  people  ; and 
probably  the  quality  has  become  somewhat  of  a national 
characteristic,  having  been  held  in  such  high  esteem, 
and  so  universally  taught  for  so  many  centuries — at  least, 
it  seems  to  be  as  natural  for  them  to  be  polite  and 
formal  as  it  is  for  them  to  breathe.  Their  religion 
teaches  the  fundamental  tenets  of  true  politeness,  in  that 
it  inculcates  the  reverence  to  parents  as  one  of  the 
highest  virtues.  The  family  circle  fosters  the  germs  of  the 
great  national  trait  of  ceremonious  politeness.  Deference 
to  age  is  universal  with  the  young.  The  respect  paid  to 
parents  does  not  cease  when  the  children  are  mature 
men  and  women.  It  is  considered  a privilege  as  well 
as  an  evidence  of  filial  duty  to  study  the  wants  and 
wishes  of  the  parents,  even  before  the  necessities  of  the 
progeny  of  those  who  have  households  of  their  own.” 

I do  not  think  that  it  is  necessary  for  me  to  add 
much  to  these  wise  and  pregnant  remarks.  The  more 
one  studies  the  Japanese  people,  the  more  I think  one’s 
admiration  of  them  increases.  They  have,  in  my  opinion, 
in  many  respects  arrived,  probably  as  the  result  of  the 
accumulated  experience  of  many  ages,  at  a right  percep- 
tion and  conception  of  the  philosophy  of  life.  Judged 
from  the  highest,  and  as  I think  only  true,  standpoint, 
that  is  the  standpoint  of  happiness  not  in  a merely 
material  but  in  a spiritual  form,  they  have  reached  a con- 
dition that  but  few  nations  have  yet  attained.  They  may 
provoke  the  pity  of  the  man  who  believes  in  full  diet  and 
plenty  of  it,  and  who  fails  to  comprehend  how  a people 
living  on  a meagre  fare  of  fish  and  rice  can  be  con- 


THE  PEOPLE— THEIR  LIFE  AND  HABITS  79 


tented,  much  less  happy,  but  the  Japanese  in  his 
philosophy  has  realised  a fact  that  happiness  is  some- 
thing other  than  material,  and  that  a man  or  woman  can 
be  largely  independent  of  the  accidentals  of  life  and 
can  attain  a realisation  of  true  happiness  by  keeping 
under  the,  too  often,  supremacy  of  matter  over  mind  in 
the  average  human  being. 


CHAPTER  VII 


TRADE — COMMERCE — AND  INDUSTRIES 
OTHING  is  perhaps  so  strongly  indicative  of  the 


progress  that  Japan  has  made  as  the  record  of  her 
trade  and  commerce.  I have  no  intention  of  inflicting  on 
my  readers  a mass  of  figures,  but  I shall  have  to  give  a few 
in  order  to  convey  some  idea  as  to  the  country’s  material 
development  of  recent  years.  Japan,  it  must  be  recollected, 
is  in  her  youth  in  respect  of  everything  connected  with 
commerce  and  industry.  When  the  country  was  isolated 
it  exported  and  imported  practically  nothing,  and  its  pro- 
ductions were  simply  such  as  were  necessary  for  the 
inhabitants,  then  far  less  numerous  than  at  present.  When 
the  Revolution  took  place  trade  and  commerce  were  still 
at  a very  low  ebb,  and  the  Japanese  connected  with  trade 
was  looked  upon  with  more  or  less  of  contempt,  the  soldier’s 
and  the  politician’s  being  the  only  careers  held  much  in 
esteem.  For  innumerable  centuries  the  chief  industry  of 
Japan  was  agriculture,  and  even  to-day  more  than  half 
of  the  population  is  engaged  thereon.  Partly  owing  to 
religious  influences,  and  partly  from  other  causes,  the 
mass  of  the  people  have  been,  and  still  are  in  effect, 
vegetarians. 

The  present  trade  of  Japan  is  in  startling  contrast  with 


80 


TRADE— COMMERCE— AND  INDUSTRIES  81 


that  of  her  near  neighbour  China,  which,  with  an  area 
about  twenty-three  times  greater,  and  a population  nearly 
nine  times  as  large,  has  actually  a smaller  volume  of 
exports.  All  the  statistics  available  in  reference  to  Japan’s 
trade,  commerce,  and  industries  point  to  the  enormous  and 
annually  increasing  development  of  the  country.  Indeed, 
the  trade  has  marvellously  increased  of  recent  years.  Since 
1890  the  annual  value  of  Japan’s  exports  has  risen  from 
;£'S,ooo,ooo  to  5,000,000,  the  imports  from  ;^'8,ooo,ooo 
to  ;^'44,ooo,ooo.  That  the  imports  will  continue  in  similar 
progression,  or  indeed  to  anything  like  the  same  amount, 
I do  not  believe.  Japan  of  recent  years  has  imported 
machinery,  largely  from  Europe  and  America,  and  used  it 
as  patterns  to  be  copied  or  improved  upon  by  her  own 
workmen.  Out  of  25  cotton-mills,  for  example,  in  Osaka, 
the  machinery  for  one  had  been  imported  from  the  United 
States.  The  rest  the  Japanese  have  made  themselves  from 
the  imported  pattern.  There  were  also  in  Osaka  recently 
30  flour-mills  ready  for  shipment  to  the  wheat  regions  of 
Manchuria.  One  of  these  mills  had  been  imported  from 
America,  while  the  remaining  29  have  been  constructed  in 
Osaka  at  a cost  for  each  of  not  more  than  one-fifth  that 
paid  for  the  imported  mill. 

Shortly  after  peace  had  been  declared  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  the  Marquis  I to  is  reported  to  have  said  to 
Mr.  McKinley:  “You  need  not  be  afraid  that  we  will 
allow  Japanese  labourers  to  come  to  the  United  States. 
We  need  them  at  home.  In  a couple  of  months  we 
will  bring  home  a million  men  from  Manchuria.  We  are 
going  to  teach  them  all  how  to  manufacture  everything  in 
the  world  with  the  best  labour-saving  machinery  to  be 
found.  Instead  of  sending  you  cheap  labour  we  will  sell 
you  American  goods  cheaper  than  you  can  manufacture 


82 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


them  yourselves.”  The  Japanese  Government  seems  to 
some  extent  to  be  going  in  for  a policy  of  State  Socialism. 
The  tobacco  trade  in  the  Empire  is  now  entirely 
controlled  by  the  Government.  The  Tobacco  Law 
extinguished  private  tobacco  dealers  and  makers,  the 
Government  took  over  whatever  factories  it  deemed  suit- 
, able  for  the  purpose,  built  others,  and  now  makes  a profit 
of  about  ;^^3,ooo,cxx)  sterling  annually,  while  the  tobacco 
\ is  said  to  be  of  a superior  quality  and  the  workmen  better 

(paid  than  was  the  case  under  private  enterprise.  How  far 
Japan  intends  to  go  in  the  direction  of  State  Socialism 
I am  not  in  a position  to  say.  Many  modern  Japanese 
statesmen  are  quite  convinced  of  the  fact  that  the  private 
exploitation  of  industry  is  a great  evil  and  one  that  ought 
to  be  put  a stop  to.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
Japanese  statesmen  who  are  firmly  convinced  that  the 
State  control  of  industries  can  only  result  in  the  destruction 
of  individual  initiative  and  genius  with  the  inevitable 
result  of  reducing  everybody  to  a dead  level  of  incom- 
petence. In  this  matter  Japan  will  have,  as  other  nations 
have  had,  to  work  out  her  own  salvation.  In  the  process 
of  experiment  many  mistakes  will  no  doubt  be  made,  but 
Japan  starts  with  this  advantage  in  respect  of  State 
Socialism,  precisely  as  in  regard  to  her  Army  and  Navy — 
that  her  statesmen,  her  leading  public  men,  her  great 
thinkers,  have  no  prejudices  or  preconceived  ideas.  All 
they  desire  is  that  the  nation  as  a whole  shall  boldly 
advance  on  that  path  of  progress  by  the  lines  which  shall 
best  serve  to  place  the  country  in  a commanding  position 
among  the  Great  Powers  of  the  world,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  promote  the  happiness,  comfort,  and  prosperity  of 
the  people. 

The  Japanese  are  great  in  imitation,  but  they  are 


TRADE— COMMERCE— AND  INDUSTRIES  83 


greater  perhaps  in  their  powers  of  adaptation.  They  have 
so  far  shown  a peculiar  faculty  for  fitting  to  Japanese 
requirements  and  conditions  the  machinery,  science, 
industry,  &c.,  necessary  to  their  proper  development. 
Japan  is  without  doubt  now  keenly  alive,  marshalling  all 
her  industrial  forces  in  the  direction  of  seeking  to  become 
supreme  in  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  Far  East.  The 
aim  of  Japanese  statesmen  is  to  make  their  country 
self-productive  and  self-sustaining.  We  may,  I think, 
accordingly  look  forward  to  the  time,  not  very  far  distant, 
when  Japan  will  cease  to  import  machinery  and  other 
foreign  products  for  which  there  has  hitherto  been  a 
brisk  demand,  when  she  will  build  her  own  warships  and 
merchant  steamers,  as  she  now  partially  does,  and 
generally  be  largely  independent  of  those  Western  Powers 
of  which  she  has  heretofore  been  such  a good  customer. 

At  the  present  time  the  chief  manufactures  of  the 
country  are  silk,  cotton,  cotton  yarn,  paper,  glass,  porce- 
lain, and  Japan  ware,  matches  and  bronzes,  while  ship- 
building has  greatly  developed  of  recent  years.  The 
principal  imports  are  raw  cotton,  metals,  wool,  drugs, 
rails  and  machinery  generally,  as  well  as  sugar  and, 
strange  to  say,  rice.  Japan  exports  silk,  cotton,  tea,  coal, 
camphor  and,  let  me  add,  matches  and  curios.  The  trade 
in  the  latter  has  assumed  considerable  proportions,  and  I 
fear  I must  add  that  much  of  what  is  exported  is  made 
exclusively  for  the  European  market.  According  to  the 
latest  figures,  the  country’s  annual  exports  amounted  to 
about  3 5,000,000,  and  its  imports  to  about  ;^44, 000,000. 
I venture  to  prophesy  that  these  figures  will  ere  long  be 
largely  inverted. 

Silk  is  the  most  important  item  of  Japan’s  foreign  trade. 
The  rearing  of  silkworms  has  been  assiduously  undertaken 


84 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


from  time  immemorial,  or  “ the  ages  eternal  ” according  to 
some  Japanese  historians.  Like  so  many  other  arts  and 
industries  of  the  country,  silkworms  are  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  from  China.  For  some  time  prior  to  the 
opening  of  Japan  to  European  trade  and  influences  the 
silk  industry  had  rather  languished  owing  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  certain  sumptuary  laws  confining  the  wearing  of 
silk  garments  to  a select  class  of  the  community,  but  so 
soon  as  Japan  discarded  her  policy  of  isolation  from  the 
rest  of  the  world  the  production  of  and  demand  for  silk 
rapidly  increased,  and  the  trade  in  it  has  now  assumed 
considerable  dimensions.  Strange  to  say,  silk  is  still  in 
Japan  what  linen  was  at  one  time  in  the  North  of  Ireland 
— a by-industry  of  the  farmer,  a room  in  his  house  being 
kept  as  a rearing  chamber  for  the  silkworms,  which  are 
carefully  looked  after  by  his  family.  According  to  official 
returns,  there  are  rather  more  than  two  and  a half  million 
families  so  engaged,  and  nearly  half  a million  silk  manu- 
facturers. The  largest  part  of  the  silk  exported  goes  to 
the  United  States  of  America.  Closely  allied  with  the 
production  of  silk  is  the  mulberry-tree,  the  leaves  of  which 
form  the  staple  food  of  the  silkworm.  This  plant  is 
cultivated  with  great  care  throughout  the  country,  and 
indeed  there  are  many  mulberry  farms  entirely  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  the  tree  and  the  conservation  of  its  leaves. 

Rice,  as  I have  elsewhere  stated,  forms  the  principal 
article  of  food  of  the  Japanese  people.  Japan  at  present 
does  not  produce  quite  sufficient  rice  for  the  consumption 
of  her  population,  and  a large  quantity  has,  accordingly, 
to  be  imported.  The  danger  of  this  for  an  island  country 
has  been  quite  as  often  emphasised  by  Japanese  statesmen 
as  the  similar  danger  in  respect  of  the  wheat  supply  of 
Great  Britain  has  been  by  English  economists.  Many 


TRADE— COMMERCE— AND  INDUSTRIES  85 


practical  steps  have  been  taken  on  the  initiative  of  the 
Japanese  Government  in  the  direction  of  improving  the 
cultivation  of  rice,  the  irrigation  of  the  fields,  &c.  As  time 
goes  on  no  doubt  the  food  of  the  people  will  become  more 
varied.  Indeed,  there  has  been  a movement  in  that  direc- 
tion, especially  in  the  large  towns.  A nation  which  largely 
lives  on  one  article  of  diet,  the  production  of  which  is 
subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of  good  and  bad  harvests,  is,  it 
must  be  admitted,  not  in  a satisfactory  position  in  reference 
to  the  food  of  its  people. 

If  rice  is  the  national  food,  tea  is  emphatically  the 
national  beverage,  despite  the  large  consumption  of  sak^ 
and  the  increasing  consumption  of  the  really  excellent  beer 
now  brewed  in  Japan.  Like  most  other  things,  the  tea- 
shrub  is  said  to  have  been  imported  into  Japan  from  China. 
Almost  since  the  opening  of  the  country,  the  United 
States  has  been  Japan’s  best  customer  in  respect  of  tea, 
and  she  has  from  time  to  time  fallen  into  line  with  the 
requirements  of  the  United  States  Government  in  regard 
to  the  quality  of  tea  permitted  to  be  imported  into  that 
country.  For  instance,  when,  in  1897,  the  United  States 
Legislature  passed  a law  forbidding  the  importation  of  tea 
of  inferior  quality  and  providing  for  the  inspection  of  all 
imported  tea  by  a fixed  standard  sample,  the  Tea  Traders 
Association  of  Japan  established  tea  inspection  offices  in 
Yokohama  and  other  ports,  and  all  the  tea  exported  from 
the  country  was  and  still  is  passed  through  these  offices. 
The  tea  is  rigidly  tested,  and  if  it  comes  up  to  the  required 
standard  is  shipped  in  bond  to  the  United  States.  The 
quality  of  the  tea  is  thus  amply  guaranteed,  and  it,  accord- 
ingly, commands  a high  price  in  the  American  Continent. 
The  value  of  the  tea  exported  to  the  United  States 
amounts  to  something  like  1,200,000,  and  there  are  no 


86 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


signs  of  any  falling  off  in  the  demand  for  it.  Canada  is 
also  a good  customer  of  Japan  for  the  same  article,  but 
Great  Britain  and  the  other  European  countries  at  present 
take  no  Japanese  tea.  I do  not  know  why  this  is  the  case 
as  the  tea  is  really  excellent,  and  it  has,  as  regards  what  is 
exported,  the  decided  advantage  of  being  inspected  by 
experts  and  the  quality  guaranteed.  The  tea  industry  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  great  national  importance,  the  total 
annual  production  amounting  to  about  65,000,000  pounds, 
the  greater  portion  of  which  is,  of  course,  consumed  in  the 
country. 

I have  already  referred  to  the  importance  of  Japanese 
arboriculture,  and  to  the  steps  taken  by  the  Japanese 
Government  in  reference  to  the  administration  of  forests 
and  the  planting  with  trees  of  various  parts  of  the  country 
not  suitable  for  agriculture.  The  State  at  the  present  time 
owns  about  54,ooo,CXDO  acres  of  forests,  which  are  palpably 
a very  great  national  asset.  I may  mention  that  the 
petroleum  industry  is  growing  in  Japan.  The  quantity  of 
petroleum  in  the  country  is  believed  to  be  veiy^  great,  and 
every  year  new  fields  are  being  developed.  The  consump- 
tion of  oil  by  the  people  is  considerable,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  ere  long  Japan  will  be  able  to  produce  all  that  she 
requires.  The  petroleum  is  somewhat  crude,  providing 
about  50  per  cent,  of  burning  oil. 

Tobacco,  as  I have  elsewhere  remarked,  is  now  a State 
monopoly,  and  forms  a considerable  item  in  the  State 
revenue.  The  quality  has  much  improved  since  the 
manufacture  of  it  has  ceased  to  be  a private  industry.  The 
Japanese  are  inveterate  smokers,  and  the  intervention  of 
the  State  in  this  matter,  although  it  has  been  criticised  by 
political  economists  in  the  country  and  out  of  it,  and  is 
undoubtedly  open  to  criticism  from  some  points  of  view, 


TRADE— COMMERCE— AND  INDUSTRIES  87 


has,  I think,  been  justified  by  results.  The  making  of 
sugar  from  beetroot  has  been  attempted  in  Japan,  but  the 
results  have  not  been  over-successful.  The  efforts  in  this 
direction  are,  however,  being  persisted  in,  and  it  is  hoped 
that,  especially  in  Formosa,  the  beet-sugar  industry  may 
develop  in  importance. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  in  Japan  has  long  been  an 
important  national  industry.  Paper  has  been  and  still  is 
used  there  for  many  purposes  for  which  it  has  never  been 
utilised  in  European  countries.  Originally  it  was  largely 
made  from  rice,  and  the  mulberry  shrub  has  also  been 
used  for  paper  manufacture.  The  rise  and  development 
of  a newspaper  press  in  Japan  and  the  impetus  given  to 
printing  has,  of  course,  largely  increased  the  demand  for 
paper.  This  is  being  met  by  the  adaptation  of  other 
vegetable  products  for  the  purpose  of  making  paper,  and  it 
seems  quite  certain  that  Japan  will  be  totally  independent 
of  any  importation  of  foreign  paper  to  meet  the  great  and 
greatly  increasing  demand  for  that  article  in  the  country. 

Salt  is,  I may  remark,  a Government  monopoly  in  Japan. 
No  one  except  the  Government,  or  some  person  licensed  by 
the  Government,  is  allowed  to  import  salt  from  abroad, 
while  no  one  can  manufacture  salt  without  Government 
permission.  Salt  made  by  salt  manufacturers  is  purchased 
by  the  Government,  which  sells  it  at  a fixed  price.  This 
particular  monopoly  has  only  recently  been  established, 
and  the  reason  put  forward  for  it  is  a desire  to  improve 
and  develop  the  salt  industry  and  at  the  same  time  to 
add  to  the  national  revenue.  Whether  a monopoly  in 
what  is  a necessary  of  life  is  economically  defensible  is  a 
question,  to  my  mind,  hardly  open  to  argument.  That  the 
revenue  of  the  country  will  benefit  by  the  salt  monopoly  is 
unquestionable. 


88 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


As  might  have  been  expected,  the  opening  up  of  Japan 
to  Western  influences  has  induced  or  produced,  inter  alia, 
some  Western  forms  of  political  and  social  and,  indeed, 
socialistic  associations.  The  antagonism  between  capital 
and  labour  and  the  many  vexed  and  intricate  questions 
involved  in  the  quarrel  are  already  beginning  to  make 
themselves  felt  in  Japan.  It  was,  I suppose,  inevitable. 
Labour  is  an  important  factor  in  an  industrial  nation  like 
Japan,  and  there  is  already  heard  the  cry — call  it  fact  or 
fallacy  as  you  choose — with  which  we  are  now  so  familiar 
in  this  country  and  on  the  Continent,  that  labour  is  the 
source  of  all  wealth.  Japan  will  no  doubt,  like  other 
countries,  sooner  or  later  have  to  face  a solution  of  the 
problems  involved  in  these  recurring  disputes  and  this 
apparently  deep-rooted  antagonism  between  the  possessors 
of  wealth  and  the  possessors  of  muscle.  Already  many 
associations  have  been  established  whose  aim  and  object  is 
to  voice  the  sentiments  of  labour  and  assert  its  rights. 
Indeed,  there  is  a newspaper,  the  Labour  IVorltl,  the  cham- 
pion of  the  rights  of  the  Japanese  workmen.  So  far  the 
law  in  Japan  does  not  regard  with  as  tolerant  an  eye  as  is 
the  case  in  this  country  labour  demonstrations  and  the 
occasionally  reckless  oratory  of  labour  champions.  The 
police  regulations  forbid  the  working  classes  embarking  in 
collective  movements  and  demonstrating  against  their 
employers  in  the  matter  of  wages  and  working  hours.  A 
suggestion  of  a strike  of  workmen  is  officially  regarded 
with  an  unfriendly  eye,  and  strikes  themselves,  picketing, 
and  various  other  Western  methods  of  coercing  employers 
to  come  round  to  the  views  of  the  employed,  would  not  at 
present  be  tolerated  in  Japan.  No  doubt  these  Western 
devices  will  assert  themselves  in  time.  The  attempt  to 
keep  down  the  effective  outcome  of  labour  organisation  in 


RICE  PLANTING,  PROVINCE  OF  HOKI 


FROM  A FRIN'T  BY  HIROSHIGE 


TRADE— COMMERCE— AND  INDUSTRIES  89 


a country  with  an  enormous  labour  population  is  not 
likely  to  be  successful  for  long.  Socialism  is  making  great 
progress  in  Japan,  and  the  State  has,  whether  consciously 
or  not,  given  it  a certain  amount  of  countenance  by  the 
steps  it  has  taken  in  reference  to  the  tobacco  and  salt 
industries,  &c.  The  extent  to  which  newspapers  are  now 
read  in  Japan — a matter  I refer  to  more  fully  in  another 
chapter — will  undoubtedly  tend  to  mould  public  opinion  to 
such  a degree  that  no  Government  could  afford  to  resist  it. 

The  trade,  commerce,  and  industries  of  Japan  appear  to 
me  to  be,  on  the  whole,  in  a healthy  and  flourishing  con- 
dition. In  them,  and  of  course  in  her  industrious  popula- 
tion, Japan  possesses  a magnificent  asset.  The  country  is 
rich  in  undeveloped  resources  of  various  kinds,  the  people 
are  patriotic  to  a degree,  and  I feel  sure  that  the  additional 
burdens  which  the  recent  war  with  Russia  has  for  the 
time  entailed  will  be  cheerfully  borne.  I am  confident, 
moreover,  that  under  the  wise  guidance  of  the  Emperor 
and  her  present  statesmen  Japan  will  make  successful 
efforts  to  liquidate  her  public  debt,  to  relieve  herself  of  her 
foreign  liabilities,  and  generally  to  proceed  untrammelled 
and  unshackled  on  that  path  of  progress  and  material 
development  that,  I believe,  lies  before  her,  and  which 
will,  I am  sure,  at  no  far-distant  date  place  her  securely 
and  permanently  in  the  position  of  one  of  the  Great  World 
Powers. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


JAPAN’S  FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES 
HERE  are  a good  many  people,  some  so-called 


financial  experts  among  the  number,  who  are  of 
opinion,  and  have  expressed  themselves  to  that  effect, 
that  the  financial  position  of  Japan  is  an  unsound  one. 
They  depict  that  country  as  weighed  down  with  a load  of 
debt,  mostly  incurred  for  her  warlike  operations  against 
Russia,  and  the  revenue  as  largely  mortgaged  for  the 
payment  of  the  interest  on  that  debt.  Some  of  these 
experts  have  told  us  that  the  facility  with  which  Japan 
was  able  to  raise  loans  on  comparatively  moderate  terms 
in  the  European  money-markets,  and  the  rush  that  was 
made  by  investors  to  subscribe  to  her  loans,  are  matters 
which  must  have  a baneful  effect  on  the  rulers  of  Japan. 
These  latter,  we  are  assured,  found  themselves  in  the 
position  not  only  of  being  able  to  raise  money  easily,  but 
of  positively  having  to  refuse  money  which  was  forced 
upon  them  by  eager  investors  when  the  Japanese  loans 
were  put  upon  the  market.  The  result  was,  so  it  has 
been  said,  to  encourage  extravagance  in  expenditure  and 
to  lead  Japan  to  suppose  that  whenever  she  wanted  money 
for  any  purpose  she  had  only  to  come  to  Europe  and 
ask  for  it.  The  financial  experts  who  so  argue,  if  such 


90 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  91 


puerile  assertions  can  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  argu- 
ment, talk  as  if  Japan  were  like  a child  with  a new  toy. 
The  Japanese  statesmen — in  which  term  I of  course  include 
the  Mikado,  one  of  the  world’s  greatest  statesmen — are  by 
no  means  so  simple  as  some  of  these  financial  experts 
would  have  us  believe.  Indeed,  I will  go  further,  and 
venture  to  assert  that  the  statesmen  are  far  more  astute 
than  the  experts.  The  former  emphatically  know  what 
they  are  about,  financially  and  otherwise,  and  they  are 
assuredly  in  no  need  of  any  Occidental  giving  them  a 
lead  in  the  matter.  If  I desired  to  adduce  any  evidence 
on  that  head  I need  only  point  to  the  Financial  and 
Economical  Annual  of  Japan,  published  every  year  at 
the  Government  printing  office  in  Tokio.  This  exhaustive 
work  deals  with  the  different  departments  of  Government. 
The  section  I have  before  me,  which  is  for  the  year  1905, 
treats  of  the  Department  of  Finance  and  it  certainly  serves, 
and  very  effectively  serves,  to  show  that  the  Japanese  are 
not,  as  they  so  often  have  been  depicted,  children  in 
matters  of  this  kind.  This  Government  handbook  is  not 
only  exhaustive  but  illuminative.  Published  in  English, 
everything  of  which  it  treats  is  explained  in  simple  and 
concise  language.  There  is  an  entire  absence  of  that 
official  jargon  which  tends,  even  if  it  is  not  intended,  to 
render  Government  publications  in  this  country  unintel- 
ligible to  the  ordinary  reader.  The  plain  man  who 
peruses  this  Japanese  year-book  can  at  least  understand 
it,  and  he  will,  among  other  things,  grasp  the  fact  that 
the  Japanese  have  got  the  whole  question  of  finance  in 
all  its  ramifications  at  their  fingers’  ends. 

The  total  National  Debt  of  Japan  in  1905  amounted  to 
994,437,340  yen,  or,  roughly,  100,000,000  sterling— a sum 
which  the  publication  I have  referred  to  works  out  to  be 


92 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


at  the  rate  of  I9'548  yen,  or  about  39s.  per  head  of  the 
population.  Of  the  debt  some  ;^43,cxx),ooo  was  incurred 
to  defray  a part  of  the  cost  of  the  war  with  Russia.  As 
an  indication  of  the  estimate  of  the  credit  of  Japan  within 
her  own  territory  as  well  as  abroad,  I may  record  the  fact 
that  the  Exchequer  Bonds  which  were  issued  in  the 
country  in  1904  and  1905  for  the  purpose  of  defraying 
the  extraordinary  expenses  of  the  war  were  largely  over- 
subscribed, the  first  issue  to  the  extent  of  452  per  cent., 
the  second  322  per  cent.,  the  third  246  per  cent.,  and  the 
fourth  490  per  cent. — a record  surely  ! Abroad  Japan’s 
loans  were  no  less  successful.  The  three  issues  made 
in  Europe  during  the  war  were  literally  rushed  for  by  the 
investing  public,  with  the  result  that  whereas  in  May,  1904, 
Japan  offered  for  subscription  a loan  of  10,000,000, 
the  issue  price  being  los.  and  the  rate  of  interest 
6 per  cent.,  in  March,  1905,  despite  the  fact  of  two  previous 
loans  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  country  incidental  to  a 
long  and  expensive  war,  she  was  able  to  place  on  the 
market  a loan  of  thirty  millions  at  4J  per  cent,  interest, 
the  issue  price  being  £go. 

A National  Debt  which  amounts  to  less  than  £2  per 
head  of  the  population  compares  very  favourably  with 
that  of  Great  Britain,  which  totals  up  to  something  like 
;^I9  per  head,  leaving  out  of  account  the  immense  and 
yearly  growing  indebtedness  of  our  great  cities  and  towns. 
Furthermore,  almost  the  whole  of  the  National  Debt  of 
this  country,  as  of  the  European  Powers  generally,  has 
been  incurred  not  only  for  unproductive,  but  as  a matter  of 
fact  for  destructive  purposes.  The  vast  loans  of  Europe 
have  been  raised  for  the  purpose  of  waging  bloody  wars, 
some  at  least  of  which  history  has  pronounced  to  have 
been  gigantic,  not  to  say  wicked,  blunders.  Much  of  the 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  93 


National  Debt  of  Japan,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  incurred 
for  useful,  productive,  and  even  remunerative  purposes — 
improving  the  means  of  transport,  constructing  railways, 
&c.  The  various  loans  outstanding  up  to  the  year  1887, 
on  which  Japan  was  paying  very  high  rates  of  interest,  as 
much  as  9 per  cent,  on  one  foreign  loan,  were  in  that  year 
converted  and  consolidated  by  the  issue  of  a loan  bearing 
interest  at  the  rate  of  5 per  cent,  per  annum — a proceeding 
which  materially  improved  Japan's  financial  position  and 
demonstrated  that  her  credit  stood  high. 

The  war  with  China  in  1894-5  necessitated  fresh  bor- 
rowing to  the  amount  of  over  1 2,000,000.  Subsequent 
loans  were  issued  in  order  to  extend  the  railway  system 
of  the  country  and  so  develop  its  trade,  for  such 
public  works  as  the  establishment  of  a steel  foundry,  the 
extension  of  the  telephone  system,  the  introduction  of 
the  leaf  tobacco  monopoly,  for  the  development  of  Formosa 
and,  another  most  important  matter,  the  redemption  of 
paper-money.  In  the  early  days  of  her  expansion  Japan 
suffered  greatly  from  the  evils  of  inconvertible  paper- 
money  and  strenuous  efforts  had  for  a long  time  been  made 
by  the  Government  for  the  redemption  of  the  paper- 
money  and  the  improvement  of  the  general  financial  con- 
dition. In  1890  it  was  found  that  the  reserve  fund  kept  in 
the  Treasury  for  the  exchange  of  paper-money  of  i yen 
and  upwards  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  demand.  To 
meet  this  emergency,  the  maximum  amount  of  convertible 
bank-notes  issued  by  the  Bank  of  Japan  against  securities 
was  increased  from  70,000,000  yen  (;^7, 169,927)  to 
85,000,000  yen  (;£’8,7o6,34o),  of  which  sum  22,000,000  yen 
were  advanced  to  the  Government  without  interest.  This 
sum  added  to  the  original  reserve  fund  of  10,000,000  yen 
(;^i,024,275)  was  employed  for  completing  the  redemp- 


94 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


tion  of  paper-money  of  i yen  and  upward.  Subsequent 
loans  for  the  purposes  of  the  war  with  Russia  I have 
already  referred  to.  Besides  funded  Japan  has  also, 
like  this  country,  had  experience  of  unfunded  debt  in  the 
shape  of  Treasury  Bills,  temporary  loans  from  the  Bank 
of  Japan,  &c.  Financial  operations  of  this  kind  are, 
however,  I imagine,  necessary  for  all  Governments  to 
meet  current  expenses.  To  briefly  recapitulate  Japan’s 
indebtedness  and  borrowings  generally  up  to  the  end  of 
March,  1905,  these  amounted  to,  in  all,  ;^I40,045,030,  of 
which  sum  ;^^S8, 187,369  has  from  time  to  time  been  paid 
off,  leaving  a balance  of  10 1,8 5 7,661  owing  by  the 
nation. 

When  we  consider  that  for  this  large,  but  not  unduly 
large,  sum  Japan  has  waged  two  considerable  wars,  and 
raised  herself  to  the  position  of  a great  naval  and  military 
Power,  that  she  has  developed  and  organised  a magnificent 
Army,  provided  herself  with  a strong,  efficient,  and 
thoroughly  up-to-date  Navy,  has  constructed  railways  and 
public  works,  and  generally  has  placed  herself  in  a 
capital  position  to  work  out  her  own  destiny  free  from 
the  fear  of  foreign  interference,  I altogether  fail  to  see  how 
she  can  be  accused  of  financial  extravagance.  There  is 
certainly  no  extravagance  in  the  administration  of  her 
finances.  London  might,  I suggest,  learn  much  from 
Tokio  in  this  matter.  The  system  of  financial  check  and 
thorough  and  rapid  audit  of  public  accounts  is  in  Japan  as 
near  perfection  as  anything  of  the  kind  can  be.  Though 
the  late  war  did  produce,  as  I suppose  all  wars  do,  pecu- 
lation, most  of  it  was  discovered  and  the  punishment  of 
the  culprits  was  sharp  and  decisive.  There  was  no  oppor- 
tunity for  financial  scandals  in  the  campaign  with  Russia 
such  as  occurred  during  the  South  African  War.  Every 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  95 


country,  of  course,  produces  rogues,  and  war  seems,  inter 
alia^  to  breed  roguery  on  a large  scale,  but  in  the  Japanese 
methods  of  finance  the  checks  are  so  effective  that  roguery 
in  the  public  services  has  a bad  time  of  it  in  war  as  well 
as  in  peace. 

As  I have  already  remarked,  I am  of  opinion  the  debt  of 
Japan  is  by  no  means  excessive,  especially  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  a large  part  of  it  has  been  devoted  to  purposes 
which  are  profitable.  The  debt  works  out,  as  I have 
shown,  at  something  under  £2  per  head  of  the  population, 
and  that  population  is  steadily  increasing.  That  Japan  is 
well  able  to  pay  the  interest  on  her  debt  there  can  be  no 
question  whatever,  and  that  when  the  present  debt  becomes 
due  for  redemption  she  will  be  able  to  raise  the  necessary 
funds  for  that  purpose  on  terms  even  more  favourable  than 
those  at  which  she  has  hitherto  placed  her  loans  I am 
confident.  I must  emphasise  the  fact,  since  so  many 
persons  seem  to  be  oblivious  of  it,  that  this  is  no  mush- 
room South  American  Republic  borrowing  money  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  spending  it  on  very  unproductive  and 
occasionally  very  doubtful  objects,  but  a Great  World 
Power  sensible  of  its  obligations,  sensible  likewise  of  the 
policy  and  necessity  of  maintaining  the  national  credit,  and 
confident  that  the  national  resources  and  the  patriotism 
of  its  people  will  enable  it  not  only  to  bear  the  present 
financial  burdens  but  even  greater,  should  these  be  found 
necessary  for  the  defence  of  the  country  or  for  its 
development. 

The  ability  of  a nation  as  of  an  individual  to  discharge 
its  debts  depends  of  course  upon  its  resources.  No  man 
possessing  even  a perfunctory  knowledge  of  the  resources 
of  Japan  would  surely  venture  to  express  alarm  at  the 
increase  in  her  debt  and  scepticism  as  to  her  being  able  to 


96 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


meet  the  annual  interest  on  that  debt  as  well  as  the 
constantly  increasing  expenses  of  administration.  The 
resources  of  the  country  have,  in  my  opinion,  as  yet 
scarcely  been  realised,  and  certainly  have  not  been  any- 
thing like  fully  developed.  And  when  I use  the  word 
resources  I do  not  employ  it  as  it  is  so  often  employed  in 
respect  of  minerals,  although  the  mineral  wealth  of  Japan 
is  considerable.  Her  resources,  as  I estimate  them,  are  to 
be  found  in  her  large  and  rapidly  increasing  population — a 
population  perhaps  the  most  industrious  in  the  world, 
persevering,  enterprising,  methodical,  and  performing, 
whatever  be  its  appointed  task,  that  task  with  all  its 
might  as  a labour  of  love,  in  fact,  not  as  the  irksome  toil 
of  the  worker  who  is  a worker  simply  because  he  can  be 
nothing  else.  It  is  this  great  industrial  hive  which  in  the 
near  future  will  supply  China  and  other  Eastern  countries 
with  all,  or  nearly  all,  those  articles  they  now  obtain  else- 
where. What  I may  term  the  European  industries  of 
Japan  have  of  recent  years  been  largely  developed  or 
evolved.  Take,  for  example,  an  item,  insignificant  in  one 
way — that  of  matches.  In  1904  matches  to  the  value  of 
9.763,860  yen,  or,  roughly,  one  million  sterling,  were 
exported,  and,  strange  to  relate,  European  clothing  to 
the  value  of  287,464  yen. 

The  glib  people  who  talk  about  Japan  biting  off  more 
than  she  can  chew,  and  with  a light  heart  borrowing  money 
she  will  find  a difficulty  in  repaying,  have  apparently  not 
grasped  the  fact  that  Japan  possesses  many  very  eminent 
financiers  who  have  quite  as  much,  if  not  more,  claim  to  be 
considered  financial  experts  than  some  of  those  gentlemen 
who  pose  in  that  capacity  here  in  England.  The  Japanese 
financiers  have,  moreover,  the  advantage  of  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  their  own  country  and  its  potentialities. 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  97 


The  Japanese  Government  has  always  had  the  benefit  of 
the  advice  of  these  singularly  able  men,  and  the  result 
has  been  that  its  financial  operations  of  recent  years  at  any 
rate  have  invariably  been  well  organised  and  skilfully  and 
economically  effected.  I cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the 
capacity  shown  by  the  Japanese  in  everything  relating  to 
I banking.  The  Banks — of  course  I refer  to  the  National 
Banks  and  not  to  the  European  Banks  having  branches 
in  the  country — have  very  quickly  attained  a high  status 
I in  the  International  Banking  world,  and  are  undoubtedly 
on  a very  firm  financial  basis.  And  there  are  many  great 
houses  in  Japan  which,  although  not  ostensibly  bankers, 
cannot  be  left  out  of  consideration  in  any  remarks  on  this 
head.  They  occupy  a position  somewhat  analogous  to 
that  of  the  Rothschilds  in  this  country.  Let  me  take  for 
example  the  house  of  Mitsui,  the  name  of  which  constantly 
crops  up  in  Japanese  finance. 

The  history  of  this  ancient  house  has  much  that  is 
picturesque  about  it,  reminding  one  of  the  old  merchant 
princes  of  Venice.  The  family  originally  belonged  to  the 
Jujiwara  clan,  and  its  origin  is  traced  back  to  a certain 
Mitsui  who  lived  as  a feudal  lord  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
At  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  Ashikaja  Shogun  he  lived  in 
a state  of  perpetual  war,  and  the  god  of  war  was  not  pro- 
pitious to  him.  He  retired  to  a neighbouring  village  and 
became  the  overlord  of  the  district.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  who  removed  to  Matsusuzaka,  where  he  settled 
down  as  a private  citizen  and  man  of  business,  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  present  Mitsui  house.  In  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  his  descendant  became 
a merchant.  His  son  moved  to  Kyoto,  where  he  started 
a large  goods  store,  which  is  represented  in  Tokio  to-day 
by  the  Mitsui  Hofukuten.  Subsequently,  at  the  beginning 

H 


98 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  the  seventeenth  century,  a member  of  the  same  house 
invented  and  introduced  the  system  of  retailing  for  cash, 
which  was  an  absolute  revolution  of  business  methods  at 
that  time  in  Japan.  In  addition  to  that  he  organised  an 
excellent  system  for  the  remittance  of  money  from  one 
part  of  the  country  to  the  other,  as  also  a carrier’s  business 
— two  very  remarkable  facts  when  one  remembers  in  what 
a primitive  and  elementary  condition  of  development  the 
monetary  business  of  Japan  was  at  that  period.  In  the 
year  1687  the  Mitsuis  were  appointed  by  the  Government 
purveyors  and  controllers  of  the  public  exchange,  and  in 
recognition  of  the  excellent  manner  in  which  the  duties 
were  performed,  they  were  given  the  grant  of  a large 
estate  in  Yeddo. 

In  1723  the  head  of  the  family,  carrying  out  the  verbal 
wishes  of  his  father,  assembled  his  brothers  and  sisters 
and  then  and  there  drew  up  in  writing  a set  of  family 
rules  which  have  ever  since  been  practically  the  articles  of 
association  of  the  house  of  Mitsui.  These  rules  embodied 
on  business-like  lines  and  in  business-like  language  the 
principle  that  the  family  and  not  the  individual  forms 
the  ultimate  union  in  Eastern  life.  It  was  not  one  or  the 
other  of  the  six  brothers  of  which  the  family  consisted 
when  these  rules  were  drawn  up  that  was  to  trade,  but  the 
whole  family  as  one  unit.  There  was  to  be  unlimited 
liability  as  far  as  the  property  of  each  one  was  concerned, 
and  the  profits  of  all  were  to  be  divided.  This  agreement 
is  the  identical  one  under  which  the  great  house  of  Mitsui 
is  run  to-day.  Under  it  the  family  prospered  exceedingly, 
so  that  when  Japan  decided  to  take  on  some  portion  of 
Western  civilisation,  the  Mitsuis  acted  as  the  principal 
financial  agents  of  the  Government,  and  it  was  mainly 
owing  to  the  enormous  financial  resources  of  the  house 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  99 


placed  by  them  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  that 
the  country  was  enabled  at  the  period  of  the  revolution  to 
pass  successfully  through  what  might  have  been  a most 
disastrous  crisis.  As  some  reward  for  the  great  services 
rendered  at  the  time,  the  present  head  of  the  house  was 
created  a peer.  Since  the  opening  of  Japan  to  Western 
influence  the  business  of  the  Mitsuis  has  enormously 
increased,  and  has  been  extended  in  various  directions. 
In  1876  their  money  exchange  business  was  converted 
into  a Bank  on  the  joint  stock  system,  but  with  unlimited 
liability  as  far  as  the  Mitsui  family  was  concerned.  In  the 
same  year,  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  in  general  foreign 
trade,  the  Mitsui  Bussan  Kwiasha  was  formed,  better 
known  in  Europe  and  America  as  Mitsui  & Co.  In  1899 
the  family  acquired  from  the  Government  the  concession 
of  the  Meike  coal-mines,  and  there  was  then  formed  the 
Mitsui  Kaishan,  or  Mining  Department,  which  has  the 
management  of  this  mining  concession  together  with 
many  others  which  have  since  been  acquired. 

To-day  the  house  of  Mitsui  consists  of  eleven  families 
under  a system  of  joint  liability  bound  together  by  the 
old  rules  drawn  up  close  upon  two  centuries  back.  The 
wealth  of  the  collective  families  is  unquestionably  great, 
and  the  confidence  of  the  people  of  Japan  in  this  great 
financial  firm  is  shown  by  the  immense  amount  of  money 
it  holds  on  deposit.  In  one  or  other  branches  of  their 
varied  businesses  they  give  employment  to  a very  large 
number  of  persons.  They  have  initiated  an  exceedingly 
interesting  system  of  insurance  for  their  employees.  Each 
is  allowed  10  per  cent,  interest  on  his  wages  up  to  three 
years  on  condition  of  its  being  deposited  in  the  Mitsui 
Bank,  with  the  proviso  that  the  sum  shall  be  forfeited  in 
case  of  the  embezzlement  of  any  of  the  Company’s  money. 


100 


THE  EMPIRE  OP  THE  EAST 


During  the  late  war,  as  well  as  in  that  with  China,  the 
Mitsui  house  had  immense  transactions  with  the  Govern- 
ment in  providing  war  material,  steamers  for  transport, 
supplies,  &c.,  and  their  magnificent  organisation  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  their  various  undertakings  without  the 
slightest  hitch.  I may  also  add  that  the  name  of  Mitsui 
headed  the  various  charitable  funds  which  were  started  in 
the  country  in  connection  with  the  war.  I am  sure  that 
this  necessarily  imperfect  sketch  of  this  famous  Japanese 
house  will  convince  my  readers  of  the  fact  that  in  finance, 
as  in  other  respects,  Japan  has  already  shown  a capacity 
for  holding  her  own  with  Western  nations. 

I have  headed  this  chapter  “Japan’s  Financial  Burdens 
and  Resources,”  but  I am  not  quite  sure  that  the  word 
“burdens”  is  not  a misnomer.  Japan  appears  to  me — 
and  I may  claim  to  have  studied  the  matter  with  some 
little  attention — to  have  no  financial  burdens,  if  burdens 
be  taken  to  mean  something  that  is  inconveniently  felt, 
that  is  difficult  to  carry.  There  is  here  no  people  weighed 
down  under  the  crushing  incubus  of  debt.  There  is  a 
springiness  and  alertness,  a go-ahead  energy  about  the 
nation — symptoms  not  usually  connected  with  the  carrying 
of  burdens.  Japan  seems  to  me  to  be  in  somewhat 
the  same  position  in  regard  to  finance  as  France  was 
after  the  close  of  the  war  with  Germany  when  the  former 
nation  found  itself  saddled  with  a tremendous  debt 
incurred  for  war  expenditure  and  the  indemnity  which 
had  to  be  paid  to  the  conquering  nation.  The  fact, 
however,  as  we  all  know,  instead  of  depressing  the  French 
people  seems  to  have  put  the  whole  country  on  its 
mettle,  with  the  result  that  the  heavy  interest  of  the 
enormous  debt  was  easily  met  and  effective  steps  taken 
to  reduce  the  principal.  The  borrowings  of  Japan  in 


FINANCIAL  BURDENS  AND  RESOURCES  101 


Europe  in  the  future  are  likely  to  be  small,  because 
she  will  be  able  to  obtain  what  she  needs  at  home,  and 
provided  she  is  not  drawn  into  any  war  she  will  find 
her  expanding  revenue  sufficient  not  only  for  the 
current  expenses  of  administration  as  well  as  for  the 
interest  on  her  debt,  but  over  and  above  all  this  enabling 
her  year  by  year  to  provide  a sinking  fund  which  will 
in  due  course  materially  reduce  even  if  it  does  not  entirely 
extinguish  the  national  indebtedness.  In  my  opinion 
Japan  can  look  forward  to  its  financial  future  with 
equanimity.  In  regard  to  its  financial  past  it  has  the 
satisfaction  of  thinking  that  heavy  in  one  sense  though 
its  financial  obligations  be  they  have  not  at  any  rate  been 
squandered  for  unworthy  purposes. 


CHAPTER  IX 


EDUCATION 

IN  England  a vast  amount  was  last  year  heard  respecting 
education.  Speakers  on  platforms  and  writers  in 
newspapers  and  other  periodical  literature  day  by  day 
and  week  by  week  for  many  months  kept  pouring  forth 
words,  words,  words  on  this  matter.  It  is  not  my 
intention  to  refer  at  all  beyond  what  I have  said  to  the 
somewhat  lively  education  controversy  in  England  which 
even  as  I write  is  by  no  means  ended.  Any  such  reference 
would  be  out  of  place  in  a book  of  this  kind,  and  even 
were  it  not  I confess  I have  no  inclination  whatever  to 
rush  into  this  particular  fray.  But  it  seems  to  me  a 
curious  fact  that  other  countries,  Japan  amongst  the 
number,  have  long  since  settled,  and  apparently  settled 
satisfactorily,  a problem  which  here  in  England  is  still 
under  discussion,  acrid  discussion,  and  is  yet  quite 
evidently  far  from  being  permanently  solved.  The 
provisions  and  arrangements  a nation  has  made  for  the 
education  of  its  youth  are,  to  my  mind,  an  excellent  test 
of  the  precise  standard  to  which  its  civilisation  has 
attained  ; because  the  future  of  a nation  is  with  its 
youth,  and  that  future  must  largely  depend  on  the 
extent  to  and  the  manner  in  which  its  youth  have  been 

102 


EDUCATION 


103 


' taught  not  only  all  those  subjects  which  are  commonly 
I classified  as  knowledge  but  their  duties  and  responsibilities 
; as  citizens.  Judged  by  this  test,  Japan  has  every  right 
’ to  rank  high  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  And  it 
I can  also  be  said  of  her  in  this  matter  that  the  education 
I of  her  people  is  no  new  thing.  It  is  not  one  among 
i the  many  things  she  has  learned  from  the  West. 
Education  was  in  vogue  in  Japan  when  that  country  was 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  Certainly  Japan’s 
contact  with  Europe  and  America  has  vastly  improved  her 
educational  system,  enabling  her,  as  it  has  done,  to  utilise 
to  the  full  the  great  advance  there  has  been  in  scientific 
knowledge  of  every  description  during  the  last  half-century 
or  so.  But,  as  far  back  as  the  seventh  century,  if  history 
or  tradition  be  correct,  an  educational  code  was  promul- 
gated in  Japan.  Certainly  this  code  was  limited  in  its 
application  to  certain  classes,  but  education  was  gradually 
extended  throughout  the  country,  and  even  in  days 
somewhat  remote  from  the  present  time  every  member 
of  the  Samurai  class  was  expected  to  include  the  three 
R’s,  or  the  Japanese  equivalent  of  them,  in  his  curriculum. 
The  ordinary  Samurai  was,  in  fact,  as  regards  reading 
and  writing  an  educated  man  at  a time  when  British 
Generals  and  even  British  Sovereigns  were  somewhat 
hazy  in  regard  to  their  orthography  and  caligraphy. 

Soon  after  the  Revolution  of  1868  a Board  of  Education 
was  instituted  in  Japan,  and  the  whole  educational  system 
of  the  country — because  one  had  existed  under  the  rule 
of  a Tycoon — was  taken  in  hand  and  reorganised.  Three 
years  later  a separate  Department  of  Education  was 
formed  at  a time  almost  synonymous  with  the  setting 
up  of  School  Boards  in  England.  As  soon  as  it  got 
itself  into  working  order  the  Education  Department 


104 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


despatched  a number  of  specially  selected  Japanese  to 
various  European  countries  as  well  as  to  the  United 
States  of  America  to  inquire  into  and  report  upon  the 
system  of  education  in  existence  and  its  suitability  for 
adaptation  or  adoption  in  Japan.  When  these  represen- 
tatives returned  from  their  mission  and  sent  in  their 
reports  a code  was  compiled  and  the  Mikado,  in  promul- 
gating it,  declared  the  aims  of  his  Government  to  be 
that  education  should  be  so  diffused  throughout  the 
country  that  eventually  there  might  not  be  a village 
with  an  ignorant  family  nor  a family  with  an  ignorant 
member.  It  was  a noble  ideal,  and  I may  remark  that, 
though  of  course  it  has  not  been  realised  in  all  its 
fulness  and  probably  will  not  be  for  very  many  years 
to  come,  it  has  been  to  a larger  extent  attained  than  a 
somewhat  similar  ideal  which  the  late  Mr.  Forster  is 
supposed  to  have  entertained  in  reference  to  the  effect 
of  the  Education  Act  which  established  a system  of 
compulsory  education  for  England  and  Wales. 

In  succeeding  years  various  changes  were  made  in 
the  system  of  national  education,  and  in  1883  that 
which  now  exists  was  brought  into  force.  This  is  in 
effect  compulsory  education.  Since  education  was  first 
organised  on  any  plan  in  Japan  the  number  under 
instruction  has  steadily  risen,  and  at  present  more  than 
90  per  cent,  of  the  children  regularly  attend  school. 
In  1873  the  number  was  1,180,000;  it  is  now  over 
5,000,000.  There  are  about  29,000  primary  schools,  of 
which  about  6,500  are  higher  primary  schools  with  a 
million  pupils.  The  total  cost  of  the  primary  schools 
is  somewhere  about  ;^3, 000,000. 

The  question  will  no  doubt  be  asked.  What  kind  of 
education  do  these  5,000,000  pupils  receive,  and  to 


EDUCATION 


105 


what  extent  is  it  adapted  to  make  them  good  citizens 
of  a great  Empire  ? The  subjects  taught  in  the  ordinary 
primary  schools  embrace  morals,  the  Japanese  language, 
arithmetic  and  gymnastics.  One  or  more  subjects,  such 
as  drawing,  singing,  or  manual  work  may  be  added, 
and,  in  schools  for  females,  sewing.  In  the  higher  primary 
schools  the  subjects  of  instruction  include  morals,  the 
Japanese  language,  arithmetic,  Japanese  history,  geo- 
graphy, science,  drawing,  singing,  and  gymnastics,  and, 
in  schools  for  females,  sewing.  Besides  these  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  manual  work,  as  well  as  the  English 
language,  are  optional  subjects.  The  moral  lessons  taught 
in  these  schools,  I may  remark,  are  not  based  upon  any 
particular  religious  doctrines  or  dogmas,  but  are  entirely 
and  absolutely  secular. 

Children  have  to  be  6 years  of  age  before  commencing 
their  scholastic  education,  and  have  to  remain  at  school 
until  they  have  attained  14  years.  The  parents  or 
guardians  of  children  are  compelled  to  send  them  to 
school  to  complete,  as  a minimum  of  education,  the 
ordinary  primary  school  course.  Education  in  the  higher 
primary  schools  is  not  compulsory,  and  it  is,  accordingly, 
a pleasing  fact  that  60  per  cent,  of  those  children  who 
have  passed  through  the  ordinary  schools  voluntarily  go 
to  the  higher  primary  schools. 

Every  municipal  or  rural  community  is  compelled  to 
maintain  one  or  more  primary  schools  sufficient,  as  regards 
size  and  the  number  of  the  staff,  to  educate  all  the 
children  in  the  district.  The  establishment  of  higher 
primary  schools  is  voluntary,  and  that  so  many  of  them 
are  in  existence  is  ample  proof  that  the  benefit  of  higher 
education  is  fully  appreciated  in  Japan.  Instruction  in 
all  the  schools  is  practically  free.  No  fee  may  be  charged 


106 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


save  with  the  consent  of  the  local  governor,  and  when  one 
is  imposed  it  must  not  exceed  the  equivalent  of  5d.  per 
month  in  a town  school  and  half  that  sum  in  a rural  school. 

As  regards  secondary  education,  it  is  compulsory  for 
one  school  to  be  established  in  each  of  the  forty-seven 
prefectures  into  which  Japan  is  divided.  The  course  of 
study  at  the  secondary  schools  extends  over  five  years, 
with  an  optional  supplementary  course  limited  to  twelve 
months.  The  curriculum  of  the  secondary  school  em- 
braces morals,  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  languages,  one 
foreign  language,  history  and  geography,  mathematics, 
natural  history,  physics  and  chemistry,  the  elements  of 
law  and  political  economy,  drawing,  singing,  gymnastics, 
and  drills.  The  course  of  study  is  uniform  in  all  Japanese 
schools.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  secondary 
schools  must  be  over  12  years  of  age,  and  have  com- 
pleted the  second  year’s  course  of  the  higher  primary 
school.  There  are  about  three  hundred  of  the  secondary 
schools  in  existence — a number,  as  will  be  seen,  six  times 
as  large  as  that  obliged  to  be  established  by  law.  The 
pupils  number  over  a hundred  thousand  and  the  cost 
approximates  ;^500,000. 

There  are  also  170  high  schools  for  girls  besides  normal 
schools  in  each  prefecture  designed  to  train  teachers  for 
the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  The  course  of  study 
in  these  schools  is  for  men  four  years,  for  women  three 
years.  The  whole  of  the  pupils’  expenses,  including  the 
cost  of  their  board  and  lodging,  is  paid  out  of  local  funds. 
There  are  also  higher  normal  schools  designed  to  train 
teachers  for  the  ordinary  normal  schools.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  there  is  a systematic  course  of  education  for 
what  I may  term  the  common  people  in  Japan,  extending 
from  the  higher  normal  to  the  ordinary  primary  school. 


EDUCATION 


107 


There  are  besides  in  Japan  higher  schools,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  prepare  young  men  for  a University  educa- 
tion. The  expense  of  these  schools  is  entirely  borne  by 
the  State.  Japan  prides  herself,  and  justly,  in  being 
unique  in  the  possession  of  such  schools.  The  course  of 
study  in  them  extends  over  three  years  and  is  split  up 
into  three  departments.  The  pupils  select  the  particular 
department  into  which  they  desire  to  enter,  and  their 
selection,  of  course,  depends  on  the  precise  course  of  study 
they  intend  to  take  up  on  entering  the  University.  The 
first  department  is  for  those  who  propose  to  study  law 
or  literature,  the  second  for  those  who  mean  to  go  in 
for  engineering,  science,  or  agriculture,  and  the  third  for 
aspirants  as  medical  men.  Candidates  for  admission  to 
these  schools  must  be  over  17  years  of  age  and  have 
completed  the  secondary  school  course. 

A reference  to  these  higher  schools  naturally  leads  up 
to  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokio,  as  well  as  the 
kindred  University  at  Kyoto.  There  are  six  colleges  in 
the  former,  viz.,  law,  medicine,  engineering,  literature, 
science,  and  agriculture,  while  Kyoto  University  possesses 
four  colleges,  viz.,  law,  medicine,  literature  and  science,  and 
engineering.  When  the  Imperial  University  was  estab- 
lished almost  all  the  Professors  therein  were  Europeans 
or  Americans,  but  there  has  been  a material  alteration 
in  this  respect,  and  now  the  foreign  Professors  are  few. 
Most  of  the  Japanese  instructors  have,  however,  been 
educated  abroad.  The  course  of  study  extends  over  four 
years  in  the  case  of  students  of  law  and  medicine,  and 
three  years  in  the  case  of  students  of  other  subjects.  There 
is  not  the  same  freedom  in  regard  to  study  as  exists  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  some  other  more  or  less  leisurely 
seats  of  learning.  In  the  Japanese  Universities  the 


108 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


students  have  to  enter  upon  a regular  prescribed  course 
of  study  with  some  few  optional  subjects.  The  Univer- 
sities confer  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  engineering,  litera- 
ture, science,  and  agriculture.  The  examinations  leading 
up  to  and  for  the  degrees  are  much  more  severe  than 
those  in  any  University  in  this  country,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  that  of  London.  It  may  interest  my  readers 
to  learn  that  the  largest  number  of  degrees  are  taken  in 
law,  the  smallest  in  science.  We  have  heard  a great  deal 
of  recent  years  respecting  technical  education  in  Great 
Britain,  which  many  persons  suggest  is  at  a very  low  ebb. 
For  what  is  in  one  sense  a new  country,  Japan  seems 
to  have  taken  steps  to  provide  an  excellent  system  of 
technical  education.  There  are  a small  number  of  State 
higher  technical  schools,  agricultural,  commercial,  and 
industrious.  Technical  schools  of  lower  grades  are  main- 
tained by  prefectures  and  urban  bodies,  and  they  receive 
grants  in  aid  from  national  funds.  There  are  in  all  about 
four  hundred  technical  schools  in  the  country.  The  few 
facts  respecting  education  in  Japan  which  I have  put  as 
tersely  as  possible  before  my  readers,  should,  I think,  con- 
vince them  of  the  fact  that  in  regard  to  this  all-important 
question  Japan  has  made  and  is  making  vigorous  efforts — 
and  efforts  all  of  which  are  in  the  right  direction.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  in  the  education  of  her  youth  she 
has  to  face  difficulties  which  are  altogether  unknown  in 
this  as  in  other  European  countries.  One  of  these  diffi- 
culties is  the  fact  that  Japanese  literature  is  more  or  less 
mixed  up  with  Chinese  literature,  and,  accordingly,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  Japanese  to  learn  Chinese  as  well  as 
Japanese  characters,  and  also  to  study  the  Chinese  classics. 
Another  difficulty  is  the  one  I touched  on  in  my  remarks 
on  the  Japanese  language,  viz.,  the  difference  between  the 


EDUCATION 


109 


written  and  spoken  languages  of  Japan.  In  old  times 
the  written  and  spoken  languages  were  no  doubt  identical, 
but  Chinese  literature  influenced  the  country  to  so  great 
an  extent  that  the  written  language  in  time  became  more 
and  more  Chinese,  while  the  spoken  dialect  remained 
Japanese.  The  consequence  is  that  the  written  language 
is  more  or  less  a hotch-potch  of  Chinese  characters 
and  the  Japanese  alphabet.  Whether  it  will  be  possible 
to  overcome  these  obvious  difficulties  remains  to  be  seen. 
Several  remedies  have  been  proposed  but  none  has  so  far 
been  adopted.  One  remedy  was  the  use  of  the  Japanese 
alphabet  alone  for  the  written  language,  another  the 
introduction  and  adoption  of  the  European  alphabet. 
Manifestly  the  difficulty  of  effecting  such  a change  as  the 
adoption  of  either  of  these  plans  would  involve  would  be 
enormous.  Still  the  retention  of  the  present  complicated 
system  is  without  doubt  the  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
educational  progress  in  Japan,  and  it  speaks  eloquently 
for  the  patience  and  pertinacity  of  the  youth  of  that 
country  that  they  have  effected  so  much  in  so  short  a 
time  in  view  of  the  difficulties  that  have  had  to  be 
encountered. 

The  strong  points  of  the  youth  of  Japan  in  the  matter 
of  education  are,  in  my  opinion,  their  great  powers  of 
concentration  and  their  indomitable  application  to  study 
and  perseverance  in  whatever  they  undertake.  Of  their 
powers  of  absorption  of  any  subject  there  can  be  no 
question.  It  has  been  urged,  as  against  this,  that  the 
Japanese  possess  the  defect  not  uncommon  among  people 
of  any  race,  viz.,  that  the  capacity  for  rapidly  assimilating 
knowledge  is  to  some  extent  counteracted  or  rendered 
abortive  by  an  incapacity  to  practically  apply  that  know- 
ledge. I may  say  for  myself  that  though  I have  often 


110 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


heard  this  objection  urged  I have  not  seen  any  indications 
of  this  lack  of  ability  to  practically  apply  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  Japanese.  I should  have  thought  that  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  would  have  afforded  ample  demon- 
stration of  the  ability  of  the  Japanese  to  put  to  good 
account  t*he  knowledge  they  had  acquired  and  assimilated 
in  their  seminaries. 

I certainly  think  that  the  system  of  education,  as  it 
exists  in  Japan  to-day,  is  one  not  only  admirably  adapted 
for  the  people  of  that  country,  but  one  from  which  some 
Western  nations  might  learn  a few  things.  Japan  has,  in 
her  education  system,  settled  the  religious  question  simply 
by  ignoring  it.  Her  morality  as  inculcated  in  every  school 
in  the  country,  is  a purely  secular  morality.  I know  that 
there  are  some  persons  who  will  deem  secular  morality  a 
contradiction  in  terms.  Indeed  there  are  many  eminent 
Japanese  who  do  not  approve  of  the  present  system. 
Count  Okuma,  for  example,  one  of  the  ablest  men  in  the 
country,  bewails  the  lack  of  a moral  standard.  The 
upper  classes  have,  he  remarks,  Chinese  philosophy,  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  have  nothing.  In  the  Western 
world,  he  points  out,  Christianity  supplies  the  moral 
standard,  while  in  Japan  some  desire  to  return  to  old 
forms,  others  prefer  Christianity  ; some  lean  on  Kant, 
others  on  other  philosophers.  Christianity  may  supply 
the  moral  standard  in  the  Western  world,  as  Count 
Okuma  asserts,  but  if  he  has  studied  recent  politics  in 
a particular  part  of  the  Western  world,  he  must  have  seen 
that  Christianity  in  that  part  is  by  no  means  in  accord  as 
to  the  teaching  of  religion  in  its  schools,  or  what  moral 
code,  if  any,  should  be  substituted  for  dogmatic  instruction. 
Perhaps,  after  all,  Japan  has  not  decided  amiss  in  for  the 
present  at  any  rate  deciding  that  secular  morality  shall 


AMATEUR  COXCHOLOGISTS 

FROM  A PRINT  HY  HIROSHIGE 


EDUCATION 


111 


be  the  only  ethical  instruction  given  in  her  schools.  That 
code  which  she  teaches,  so  far  as  I have  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  it,  is  one  which  contains  nothing  that 
could  be  in  the  slightest  degree  objected  to  by  the  votaries 
of  any  religious  system  either  in  the  East  or  in  the  West. 

Although  it  has  no  direct  connection  with  morality, 
secular  or  otherwise,  it  may  be  of  interest  if  I give  here  a 
synopsis  of  the  teaching  given  in  Japanese  schools  in 
reference  to  the  behaviour  of  the  pupils  towards  foreigners. 
These  rules  have  been  collected  by  an  English  newspaper 
in  Japan,  and  they  certainly  serve  to  show  that  the  youth 
of  Japan  are  in  this  matter  receiving  instruction  which, 
whether  regarded  from  an  ethical  standpoint  or  merely 
that  of  good  manners,  cannot  be  too  highly  commended. 

“ Never  call  after  foreigners  passing  along  the  streets  or 
roads. 

“ When  foreigners  make  inquiries,  answer  them  politely. 
If  unable  to  make  them  understand,  inform  the  police  of 
the  fact. 

“ Never  accept  a present  from  a foreigner  when  there  is 
no  reason  for  his  giving  it,  and  never  charge  him  anything 
above  what  is  proper. 

“ Do  not  crowd  around  a shop  when  a foreigner  is  making 
purchases,  thereby  causing  him  much  annoyance.  The 
continuance  of  this  practice  disgraces  us  as  a nation. 

“ Since  all  human  beings  are  brothers  and  sisters,  there 
is  no  reason  for  fearing  foreigners.  Treat  them  as  equals 
and  act  uprightly  in  all  your  dealings  with  them.  Be 
neither  servile  nor  arrogant. 

“ Beware  of  combining  against  the  foreigner  and  dis- 
liking him  because  he  is  a foreigner  ; men  are  to  be  judged 
by  their  conduct  and  not  by  their  nationality. 

“ As  intercourse  with  foreigners  becomes  closer  and 


112 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


extends  over  a series  of  years,  there  is  danger  that  many 
Japanese  may  become  enamoured  of  their  ways  and  customs 
and  forsake  the  good  old  customs  of  their  forefathers. 
Against  this  danger  you  must  be  on  your  guard. 

“ Taking  off  your  hat  is  the  proper  way  to  salute  a 
foreigner.  The  bending  of  the  body  low  is  not  to  be 
commended. 

“ When  you  see  a foreigner  be  sure  and  cover  up  naked 
parts  of  the  body. 

“ Hold  in  high  regard  the  worship  of  ancestors  and  treat 
your  relations  with  warm  cordiality,  but  do  not  regard  a 
person  as  your  enemy  because  he  or  she  is  a Christian. 

“ In  going  through  the  world  you  will  often  find  a know- 
ledge of  a foreign  tongue  absolutely  essential. 

“ Beware  of  selling  your  souls  to  foreigners  and  becoming 
their  slaves.  Sell  them  no  houses  or  lands. 

“ Aim  at  not  being  beaten  in  your  competition  with 
foreigners.  Remember  that  loyalty  and  filial  piety  are  our 
most  precious  national  treasures  and  do  nothing  to  violate 
them.” 

It  seems  to  me  a pity  that  education  on  somewhat 
similar  lines  to  that  embodied  in  these  interesting  rules 
cannot  be  imparted  to  the  youth  of  this  and  other 
European  countries.  It  would  certainly  tend,  I think,  in 
the  direction  of  good  manners  which  are,  I fear,  sadly  lack- 
ing in  many  of  the  pupils  who  have  undergone  a course  of 
School  Board  instruction  in  England. 

A question  that  may  arise  in  regard  to  the  details  of 
Japanese  education  is  how  far  and  in  what  degree  do  the 
pertinacity  and  zeal  of  the  youth  of  Japan  for  knowledge 
affect  their  physique.  We  know  that  mens  sana  in  corpore 
sano  is  the  ideal  at  which  every  one  concerned  with  the 
education  of  young  people  of  both  sexes  ought  to  strive. 


EDUCATION 


113 


There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  too  close  an  attention  to 
study  of  any  kind,  too  constant  an  exercise  of  the  mental 
faculties,  unless  it  is  accompanied  by  a corresponding 
exercise  of  the  body,  very  often  has  an  injurious  effect 
upon  the  human  frame.  Count  Okuma,  in  referring  to  this 
matter,  has  pointed  out  that  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
difference  between  the  written  and  spoken  languages  is  a 
very  serious  tax  upon  the  pupils  in  all  the  schools, 
necessitating,  as  it  does,  the  duplicating  of  their  work.  So 
much  time,  he  considers,  has  to  be  spent  by  them  in  study 
on  account  of  this  duplicating  that  it  is  quite  impossible 
for  students  to  have  sufficient  physical  exercise,  while  if  it 
were  decided  to  devote  more  time  to  exercise,  the  years 
allotted  to  education  would  have  to  be  lengthened — a fact 
which  must  involve  a serious  loss  in  regard  to  the  work  of 
the  nation.  I do  not  take  quite  such  a pessimistic  view 
of  the  lack  of  physical  education  of  the  youth  of  Japan.  In 
the  first  place,  gymnastics  form  part,  an  important  part, 
of  the  course  of  instruction  in  all  schools  throughout  the 
country,  and  in  the  next  place  the  young  people  of  Japan, 
so  far  as  I have  been  able  to  arrive  at  an  opinion  in  the 
matter,  are  almost  if  not  quite  as  enthusiastic  in  regard  to 
various  forms  of  outdoor  sport  as  are  those  of  this  country. 
The  buoyancy  and  enthusiasm  of  youth  are,  indeed,  very 
much  the  same  all  over  the  world.  It  is  only  when  youth 
comes  to  what  are  very  often  erroneously  described  as 
years  of  discretion  that  artificiality  begins  to  assert  itself 
Base-ball,  lawn-tennis,  bicycling,  and  rowing  are  all  exten- 
sively patronised  by  the  young  men  of  Japan,  and  cricket 
has  of  recent  years  come  considerably  into  vogue.  The 
students  of  the  Imperial  University  have  not  only  shown 
no  disinclination,  but,  on  the  contrary,  an  avidity  to  com- 
bine athletics  with  their  studies,  and  in  base-ball  especially 
1 


114 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


they  have  more  than  held  their  own  against  the 
foreigner.  I confess  I have  no  desire  to  see  the  craze  for 
outdoor  sports  which  is  so  much  in  evidence  in  this 
country  extending  to  Japan.  Some  of  the  public  schools 
in  England  are  much  more  famous  for  their  cricket,  foot- 
ball, and  other  teams  than  for  the  education  imparted  in 
them.  Many  a young  man  leaves  those  schools  an 
excellent  cricketer  or  football  player,  but,  from  an  educa- 
tional point  of  view,  very  badly  equipped  for  the  battle  of 
life.  The  happy  mean  is  surely  the  best  in  this  as  in  other 
matters,  and  I venture  to  think  that  the  youth  of  Japan  in 
regarding  education  as  the  essential  matter  and  outdoor 
sport  as  merely  a subsidiary  one  have  shown  sound 
judgment. 

In  my  remarks  on  education  in  Japan  I have  dealt 
principally  with  the  schools  for  boys.  I may,  however, 
remark  that  in  the  arrangements  she  has  made  for  the 
education  of  the  other  sex  she  has  shown  the  same 
thoroughness.  In  the  primary  schools  the  boys  and  girls 
are  taken  in  without  any  distinction,  though  separate 
classes  are  usually  formed.  There  are  subsequently  higher 
schools  for  girls.  The  percentage  of  the  female  sex  attend- 
ing these  schools  is  less  than  that  of  the  other.  There  are 
in  all  about  seventy-five  of  these  schools  in  Japan  with 
some  twenty  thousand  pupils.  The  course  of  instruction 
in  them  is  moral  precepts,  Japanese  language,  a foreign 
language,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  science,  draw- 
ing, training  for  domestic  affairs,  cutting-out  and  sewing, 
music  and  gymnastics.  I think  in  regard  to  these  schools 
the  Japanese  authorities  have  shown  sound  judgment  in 
decreeing  that  music  shall  not  necessarily  form  part  of  the 
education  of  every  young  girl,  but  may  be  omitted  for 
those  pupils  for  whom  the  art  may  be  deemed  difficult. 


EDUCATION 


115 


Were  a similar  rule  to  be  adopted  in  this  country  quite  a 
number  of  people  would  be  saved  a large  amount  of 
unnecessary  torture.  There  is  also  a higher  normal  school 
for  women  at  Tokio,  as  likewise  an  Academy  of  Music. 
The  Tokio  Jiogakkwan  is  an  institution  established  by 
some  foreign  philanthropists  for  the  purpose  of  educating 
Japanese  girls  of  a respectable  class  in  Anglo-Saxon 
attainments.  This  institution  has  between  two  and  three 
hundred  pupils,  but  I am  not  in  a position  to  state  what 
measure  of  success,  if  any,  it  has  achieved,  nor  indeed  do 
I know  what  “ Anglo-Saxon  attainments  ” are  supposed 
to  be.  Many  of  them  I should  have  thought  were  quite 
unsuitable  for  the  ordinary  Japanese  girl,  tending,  as  they 
must,  to  destroy  her  national  individuality.  There  is  also 
a girls’  college  in  Tokio  called  the  Women’s  University. 
It  does  not  confer  degrees,  but  it  gives  a very  high  educa- 
tion, and  it  is  largely  patronised. 

I stated  at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter  that  I 
was  of  opinion  the  provisions  and  arrangements  a nation 
had  made  for  the  education  of  its  youth  were  an  excellent 
test  of  the  standard  to  which  its  civilisation  has  attained. 
I hope  the  slight  sketch  I have  given  my  readers  of  the 
system  of  education  in  existence  in  Japan  will  enable  them 
to  form  an  estimate  as  to  the  place  Japan  should  occupy 
if  judged  by  the  standard  referred  to.  In  my  opinion, 
seeing  that  it  is  less  than  forty  years  since  the  country 
passed  through  a drastic  revolution — a revolution  which 
i destroyed  all  these  social  forces  which  had  been  in  exist- 
ence and  had  exercised  a tremendous  influence  on  the  life 
' of  the  people  for  many  centuries — it  is,  I think,  not  only 
extraordinary  but  highly  creditable  to  her  rulers  that 
Japan  should  have  in  that  short  interval  organised  and 
perfected  such  a system  of  education  as  exists  in  the 


116 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


country  to-day.  Under  that  system  every  boy  and  girl 
in  the  land  receives  an  admirable  course  of  instruction,  and 
is  afforded  facilities  for  still  further  extending  and  enlarg- 
ing that  course,  and,  if  his  or  her  abilities,  ambitions,  and 
opportunities  incline  them  that  way,  to  proceed  steadily 
onward  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  until  they  obtain 
as  a coping  stone,  that  final  course,  in  the  capital  either  at 
the  Imperial  University  or  the  Women’s  University  where 
the  sum  of  all  the  knowledge  of  the  world  is  at  the  disposal 
of  those  who  have  the  capacity  and  the  aspiration  to 
acquire  it. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY 
WORK  on  Japan  which  did  not  include  some 


reference  to  the  Army  and  Navy  would  manifestly 
be  incomplete.  It  is  hardly  any  exaggeration  to  assert 
that  nothing  in  regard  to  the  metamorphosis  of  Japan  has 
so  impressed  the  Western  mind  as  the  extraordinary 
progress  of  its  naval  and  military  forces.  Both  in  this 
country  and  on  the  Continent  it  was,  of  course,  known  that 
Japan  had  been  for  years  evolving  both  an  Army  and 
Navy,  but  I imagine  most  persons  thought  that  this  action 
on  her  part  was  merely  a piece  of  childish  extravagance,  and 
that  her  land  and  sea  forces  would,  if  they  were  ever  pitted 
against  Europeans,  prove  as  impotent  as  Orientals  nearly 
always  have  proved.  I am  quite  aware  that  naval  and 
military  experts  of  various  nationalities  who  had  studied 
matters  on  the  spot  were  of  a different  opinion.  They 
witnessed  the  high  state  of  efficiency  of  both  the  Japanese 
Army  and  Navy,  the  patriotic  spirit  of  the  officers  and 
men,  their  enthusiasm  for  their  work,  and  that  universal 
feeling  of  bravery,  if  it  be  bravery,  which  consists  in  an 
absolute  contempt  of  life.  Still  I think,  even  to  the 
experts,  the  splendid  organisation  and  overwhelming 
superiority  of  Japan  in  her  encounter  with  China  came 


117 


118 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


as  somewhat  of  a surprise.  The  complete  victory  of  the 
Island  Nation  in  that  struggle  was,  I know,  to  a certain 
extent  discounted  in  some  quarters  by  the  stories  that 
were  published  as  to  the  wretched  condition  of  both  the 
Chinese  Army  and  Navy,  their  utter  unfitness  and  unpre- 
paredness for  war,  the  incompetence  and  corruption  of 
the  officers,  and  so  on.  There  were  many  otherwise  well 
informed  persons  who  felt  confident  that  though  Japan  had 
experienced  little  or  no  difficulty  in  mastering  China,  the 
case  would  be  different  when,  if  ever,  she  was  involved  in 
war  with  a European  power.  I do  not  think  these  doubts 
were  prevalent  or  indeed  present  at  all,  in  the  minds  of 
the  naval  and  military  authorities.  No  responsible  states- 
man or  official  in  Japan  desired  war.  The  Japanese  are 
not  in  any  sense  a bellicose  people.  Still,  the  statesmen 
of  the  country  were  fully  alive  to  the  fact  that  it  might  be 
necessary  to  fight  for  the  national  existence.  They  had 
had  experience  in  the  past  of  the  ambition  of  Russia  to 
aggrandise  herself  at  the  expense  of  Japan.  They  saw, 
or  thought  they  saw,  that  Russia  had  designs  on  Korea, 
and  they  were  determined  to  frustrate  those  designs,  and 
so  perhaps  obviate  in  the  best  manner  possible  future 
attempts  on  the  independence  of  Japan  itself.  And  hence 
it  came  about  that  serious  efforts  were  directed  to  create 
an  Army  and  Navy  strong  and  efficient. 

The  creation,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
the  reorganisation,  of  the  Army  was  entrusted,  soon  after 
the  Revolution  of  1868,  to  a few  European  officers,  and 
it  has  proceeded  throughout  on  European  lines.  The  task 
was  not  so  difficult  as  might  have  been  expected.  In 
old  Japan  the  terms  “soldier”  and  “Samurai”  were 
synonymous,  and  the  security  of  the  territory  of  each 
of  the  great  feudal  princes  depended  on  the  strength 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  119 


of  his  army.  The  Continental  system  of  conscription 
was  adopted  and  still  obtains.  All  Japanese  males 
between  the  ages  of  17  and  40  are  liable  to  military 
service.  The  Service  is  divided  into  Active,  Landwehr, 
Depot,  and  Landsturn  services.  The  Active  service  is 
divided  into  service  with  the  colours  and  service  with 
the  first  reserve.  The  former  is  obligatory  for  all  who 
have  reached  the  full  age  of  20  years,  and  such  service 
is  for  a period  of  three  years.  Service  in  the  first  re- 
serve is  compulsory  for  all  who  have  finished  service 
with  the  colours,  and  lasts  for  a period  of  four  years  and 
four  months.  The  Landwehr  reserve  is  comprised  of 
those  who  have  finished  the  first  reserve  term,  and  it 
continues  for  a period  of  five  years.  The  Depot  service 
is  divided  into  two  sections.  The  first,  which  lasts  seven 
years  and  four  months,  is  made  up  of  those  who  have 
not  been  enlisted  for  Active  service,  while  the  second, 
extending  over  one  year  and  four  months,  consists  ot 
those  who  have  not  been  enlisted  for  first  Depot  service. 
The  Landsturn  is  in  two  divisions — one  for  those  who 
have  completed  the  term  of  Landwehr  service  and  the 
first  Depot  service,  and  the  second  for  all  who  are  not 
on  the  other  services.  This  system  of  conscription,  ot 
course,  lends  itself  to  criticism,  and  it  has  been  criticised 
by  the  military  experts  of  great  military  nations,  but 
on  the  whole  it  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of 
the  two  wars  in  which  Japan  has  been  involved  during 
the  last  twelve  years  to  have  worked  well,  and  it  prob- 
ably answers  as  well  as  any  system  that  could  be  de- 
vised, the  needs  of  the  country,  and  the  characteristics 
of  the  people  thereof.  The  Japanese  are,  as  these 
recent  wars  amply  demonstrated,  patriotic  to  a degree. 
They  not  only  have  great  powers  of  perseverance,  but 


120 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


great  capacities  for  assimilation  and  adaptation,  and  are 
considered  by  many  military  authorities  probably  the  very 
best  raw  material  in  the  world  out  of  which  to  make 
soldiers.  Conscription  may  not  be  an  ideal  system  for  any 
country.  It  is,  of  course,  better  from  one  point  of  view 
that  the  armed  forces  of  a nation  should  voluntarily  enlist 
rather  than  be  pressed  men.  But  conscription  in  Japan 
has  never  been,  and  is  not  likely  to  be,  such  a burden  as  is 
the  case  among  some  European  nations.  The  Japanese 
idea  of  patriotism  is  something  totally  different  to  that 
which  obtains  in  the  West.  The  late  war  afforded  ample 
evidence  of  that,  were  any  needed. 

The  war  with  Russia  has  been  so  recently  concluded 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  at  any  length  into  a con- 
sideration of  the  Japanese  Army.  The  history  of  that 
war  gave  ocular  demonstration  to  the  European  nations, 
however  incredulous  they  may  previously  have  been  on  the 
subject,  that  Japan  was  in  fact  a great  military  Power. 
In  the  course  of  that  war  she  put  in  the  field  somewhere 
about  700,000  men,  conveyed  them  across  the  sea  to  a 
foreign  country,  and  showed  throughout  the  struggle  a 
capacity  for  the  most  wonderful  military  organisation. 
The  smallest  details  were  most  carefully  attended  to ; there 
was  an  entire  absence  of  that  muddle  so  much  in  evidence 
when  European  nations  are  engaged  in  hostilities.  Re- 
specting the  fighting  qualities  of  the  Japanese  soldier  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  anything.  On  the  field  of  battle 
or  during  the  long,  arduous  and  monotonous  work  of  a 
siege  he  has  shown  himself  alike  a model  soldier.  Perhaps 
he  has  shone  most  in  the  hour  of  victory  by  his  moderation. 
Every  foreign  officer  who  saw  the  work  done  by  the 
Japanese  Army  throughout  the  various  incidents  of  the 
Russian  War  was  lost  in  admiration.  To  me  the  most 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  121 


pleasing  feature  of  that  war  was  the  ease  with  which  the 
soldier,  on  coming  back  to  Japan,  returned  to  the  peace- 
ful pursuits  of  civil  life.  The  bumptious  braggadocio  that 
European  military  nations  have  developed  has  no  counter- 
part in  Japan.  The  war  was,  in  the  estimation  of  the 
people,  a sacred  duty.  The  burdens  which  it  entailed  were 
cheerfully  borne.  The  Japanese  soldier  bore  his  hardships 
or  gave  up  his  life  equally  cheerfully.  At  the  same  time 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  came  as  a relief,  and  the  mass  of 
the  soldiery  gladly  went  through  the  Japanese  equivalent 
of  turning  their  swords  into  ploughshares.  Japan  has 
demonstrated  that  she  is  a great  military  nation,  and  the 
organisation  of  her  Army  is  one  that  might  well  be  studied 
by  the  military  authorities  of  other  countries. 

The  weak  point  of  the  Japanese  Army  is  its  cavalry. 
Whether  cavalry  in  the  warfare  of  the  future  will  play  the 
important  part  that  it  has  played  in  that  of  the  past  is  a 
matter  upon  which  I do  not  care  to  dogmatically  pro- 
nounce, especially  as  military  authorities  are  by  no  means 
in  agreement  in  regard  thereto,  or  indeed  as  to  the  precise 
functions  of  cavalry  in  military  warfare.  The  difficulties 
of  Japan  in  regard  to  organising  an  efficient  cavalry  have 
been  largely,  if  not  altogether,  owing  to  the  lack  of  good 
horses  in  the  country.  The  Japanese  horses  have  not  been 
conspicuous  for  quality,  while  the  number  available  has 
not  been  anything  like  sufficient  to  enable  the  cavalry  to 
be  brought  up  to  a proper  condition  of  strength  and 
efficiency.  The  Japanese  military  authorities  have  long 
been  sensible  of  this  fact,  and  the  late  war  amply  demon- 
strated it.  With  its  usual  thoroughness,  the  Government 
has,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  close  of  the  war,  taken 
steps  to  remedy  this  weak  point  in  its  military  system,  and 
quite  recently  two  delegates  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture 


122 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


have  been  despatched  to  Europe  on  a horse-purchase 
mission.  Ten  million  yen  have,  I understand,  been 
apportioned  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  national 
breed  of  horses,  and  the  delegates  have  been  instructed  to 
purchase  suitable  animals  for  breeding.  The  Japanese 
Government  has  almost  invariably  been  successful  in  any- 
thing it  has  undertaken,  and  I venture  to  predict — it  is 
scarcely  a hazardous  prophesy — that  the  horse  supply  of 
the  country  will  ere  long  be  put  on  a satisfactory  footing 
and  the  cavalry  be  rendered  as  efficient  as  every  other 
branch  of  the  Japanese  Army. 

There  is  no  fear  of  a military  autocracy  in  Japan.  The 
recent  war  proved  not  only  the  bravery  of  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  Army,  but  the  high  military  talent  of  the  officers. 
The  art  of  war  had  evidently  been  studied  from  every 
point  of  view,  and  was  diligently  applied.  The  Japanese 
talent,  in  my  opinion,  consists  not  in  a mere  mechanical 
copying,  but  in  a practical  adaptation  of  all  that  is  best  in 
Western  civilisation.  The  tactics  and  strategy  displayed 
during  the  war  with  Russia  showed  originality  in  con- 
ception, brilliancy  and  daring.  If  that  war  did  not 
discover  a Napoleon  among  the  Japanese  generals,  it 
can  at  least  be  said  that  Japan  has  no  need  of  a 
Napoleon.  As  I have  said,  there  is  no  fear  of  the 
development  of  a military  autocracy  in  that  country  or 
the  uprising  of  a general  with  Napoleonic  ideas  and 
ambition.  The  generals  who  justly  earned  distinction 
during  the  recent  war  are  singularly  modest  men,  with 
no  capacity  for  self-advertising  and  no  desire  whatever 
for  self-aggrandisement.  They  are  not  only  content  but 
anxious,  now  that  the  war  is  over,  to  sink  into  obscurity. 
History  will,  however,  not  permit  of  that.  Their  achieve- 
ments in  the  recent  campaign  will  long  afford  subject- 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  123 


matter  for  study  and  the  instruction  of  the  military 
students  of  the  future.  In  this  book  I have  as  far  as 
possible  avoided  mentioning  names,  otherwise  I would 
gladly  inscribe  on  its  pages  the  names  of  those  many 
generals  who  earned  fame  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 
I feel  perfectly  certain  that  every  endeavour  will  be  made 
to  maintain  the  Japanese  Army  in  the  high  state  of 
efficiency  it  has  reached.  At  the  same  time  I would 
emphasise  the  fact  that  that  Army  is  intended  solely 
for  defence.  Japan  has,  in  a word,  no  military  ambitions 
outside  her  own  territory. 

And  as  of  the  Army,  so  of  the  Navy.  Perhaps  the 
prowess  of  Japan’s  Fleet  impressed  the  English  people 
even  more  than  the  victories  of  her  soldiers.  Because 
the  Navy,  as  it  is  to-day,  is  largely  the  outcome  of 
English  training  and  the  application  of  English  ideas. 
In  the  first  instance  Japan  borrowed  from  the  British 
Government  the  services  of  some  of  its  best  naval  officers 
to  develop  the  Japanese  Navy.  A naval  college  was 
established  in  the  capital,  modelled  on  the  English  system 
of  training.  A dockyard  was  also  constructed  at  Yokosko 
under  French  guidance.  It  is,  however,  a mistake  to  sup- 
pose that  Japan  had  no  Navy  or  no  ambitions  in  the 
direction  of  creating  one  prior  to  English  naval  officers 
being  lent  to  the  Japanese  Government  to  assist  in  the 
reorganisation  of  the  Navy.  The  determination  to  create 
a fleet  on  European  lines  was  entertained  by  Japanese 
statesmen  as  far  back  as  the  ’fifties,  when  the  European 
Powers  and  the  United  States  of  America  were  bringing 
pressure  to  bear  on  Japan  with  a view  of  obtaining  trading 
facilities  and  the  opening  up  of  the  country  generally. 
The  Japanese  statesmen  of  those  days  were  wise  enough 
to  see  that  unless  Japan  was  to  be  permanently  under  the 


124 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


tutelage  of  the  European  Powers,  it  was  necessary  for  her 
to  construct  a fleet  and  army  on  European  lines.  Soon 
afterwards  a naval  school,  under  Dutch  instructors,  was 
established  at  Nagasaki,  and  a certain  number  of  selected 
officers  and  men  were  sent  to  Europe  to  undergo  a course 
of  instruction,  and  several  war-vessels  were  ordered  from 
Holland.  In  1854  a two-masted  ship  was  built  in  Japan 
from  an  English  model,  and  subsequently  two  others. 
During  the  war  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain  a 
Russian  sloop  was  wrecked  on  the  Japanese  coast,  and 
permission  was  obtained  for  Japanese  workmen  to  be 
employed  in  the  repairs  of  the  vessel,  with  a view  of 
giving  them  an  opportunity  of  gaining  some  practical 
knowledge  of  naval  architecture.  In  1855  the  King  of 
Holland  presented  a steam  corvette  to  the  Tycoon.  In 
this  year  the  now  familiar  Japanese  ensign — a red  ball 
on  a white  ground — was  introduced,  and  has  since  remained 
the  national  flag. 

On  the  arrival  of  Lord  Elgin  in  Japan  on  a mission  in 
1857  a sailing  vessel  at  Nagasaki  was  flying  the  flag  of  an 
Admiral  of  the  Japanese  Navy.  In  the  same  year  a steam 
yacht  was  presented  to  the  Tycoon  by  the  late  Queen 
Victoria,  and  was  formally  handed  over  to  the  Japanese 
Government  by  Lord  Elgin.  His  secretary  relates  that 
the  yacht  got  under  way,  commanded  by  a Japanese 
captain  and  manned  by  Japanese  sailors,  while  her 
machinery  was  worked  by  Japanese  engineers.  The 
secretary,  in  his  account  of  the  incident,  relates  that 
“ notwithstanding  the  horizontal  cylinders  and  other 
latest  improvements  with  which  her  engines  were  fitted, 
the  men  had  learnt  their  lesson  well,  and  were  confident 
in  their  powers,  and  the  yacht  steamed  gallantly  through 
and  round  the  Fleet,  returning  to  her  anchorage  without  a 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  125 


hitch.”  This  authoritative  statement  ought  to  dispose  of 
the  absurd  story  which  has  long  been  a chestnut  among 
the  English  community  in  Japan  and  the  English  naval 
officers  on  the  China  station,  that  when  the  old  Con- 
federate Ram,  the  Stonewall  Jackson,  was  purchased  in 
America  and  brought  to  Yokohama  a somewhat  ludicrous 
incident  occurred.  According  to  the  story,  which,  I may 
observe,  is  one  of  the  ben  trovato  order,  when  steam  was 
got  up  in  the  vessel  for  trial  purposes  it  had  to  steam 
round  and  about  Yokohama  Harbour,  to  the  great  danger 
of  the  foreign  warships  and  merchant  steamers  there,  until 
the  steam  was  in  due  course  exhausted  and  the  machinery 
automatically  stopped  through  the  lack  of  any  motive 
power  to  drive  it,  as  the  Japanese  engineer  in  charge  did 
not  know  how  to  shut  off  steam.  The  Stonewall  Jackson, 
I may  observe,  did  not  take  part  in  the  now  almost  for- 
gotten battle  of  Hakodate,  which  took  place  at  the  time 
of  the  Revolution,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  expiring 
effort  of  old  Japan  to  stay  the  march  of  events  in  that 
country.  In  the  battle  of  Hakodate  the  rebel  fleet  was 
totally  destroyed,  and  the  various  clans  in  the  country 
who  possessed  war-vessels  of  one  kind  or  other  presented 
them  to  the  central  Government.  These  vessels,  it  must 
be  confessed,  were  not  of  much,  if  any,  utility  in  the  direc- 
tion of  forming  a Navy,  and  I am  not  aware  how  many  of 
them,  or  indeed  whether  any  of  them,  were  utilised  for  the 
purpose  of  inaugurating  that  Navy  which  has  now  become 
world-famous. 

In  1858  the  naval  school,  which,  as  I have  already 
stated,  had  been  established  at  Nagasaki,  was  transferred 
to  Yeddo,  and  a few  years  later  the  Japanese  Government 
determined  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  some  English  naval 
officers  with  a view  of  giving  instruction  in  the  school 


126 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Application  was  accordingly  made  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment through  the  Minister  in  Yeddo,  and  the  sanction  oi 
the  Admiralty  having  been  obtained,  a number  of  English 
naval  officers  were  selected,  and  despatched  to  Japan  as 
instructors  in  the  Yeddo  Naval  College.  Amongst  these 
officers,  it  may  be  interesting  to  state,  was  Admiral  Sir 
A.  K.  Wilson,  V.C.,  G.C.B.,  the  late  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  Channel  Fleet.  In  the  year  1873  ^ number  of 
other  naval  officers  were  sent  out  from  England,  the  pre- 
vious staff  having  been  withdrawn  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War.  This  staff  was  in  charge  of  Admiral  Sir 
A.  L.  Douglas,  till  recently  Commander-in-Chief  at  Ports- 
mouth, and  for  some  years  subsequently  an  English  naval 
officer  was  at  the  head  of  the  instructing  staff  of  the 
college.  Japan  was  fortunate  in  one  respect  — in  the 
Englishmen  she  entrusted  with  the  evolution  of  her  Navy. 
She  was  fortunate  in  attracting  the  men  best  fitted  for  the 
work,  and  also  in  inspiring  them  with  a high  conception  of 
their  task.  Some  Englishmen  are  of  opinion  that  Japan 
has  somewhat  forgotten  her  obligations  in  this  matter. 
Young  Japan,  they  suggest,  desires  to  forget  the  influences 
to  which  the  country  mainly  owes  its  present  magnificent 
fleet.  That  fleet  is  undoubtedly,  for  the  most  part,  the 
outcome  of  English  conceptions  and  English  training. 
There  is  one  man  whose  name,  I think,  deserves  to  be 
recorded  in  connection  therewith.  I refer  to  the  late 
Lieutenant  A.  G.  S.  Hawes,  of  the  Royal  Marine  Light 
Infantry,  who  left  the  English  Service  and  worked 
strenuously,  enthusiastically,  and  earnestly  to  build  up 
the  personnel  of  the  Japanese  Navy  in  the  early  ’seventies. 
There  were  others  whose  efforts  in  the  same  direction 
assisted  in  that  consummation,  but  Hawes’s  services  were 
unique  and  splendid.  He  believed  in  Japan,  and  he 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  127 


threw  himself  into  his  work  with  a zeal  and  ardour  which 
were  beyond  praise.  His  services  were  dispensed  with,  as 
were  those  of  the  other  English  officers  and  men,  when  it 
was  felt  that  Japan  had  learnt  sufficient  to  work  out  her 
own  destiny  as  a naval  Power.  The  labours  of  these  men 
may  not  have  been  adequately  recognised  at  the  time,  but 
their  work  remains,  and  is  in  evidence  to-day.  Hawes 
received  a decoration  from  the  Mikado,  and  the  British 
Government  gave  him  a consular  appointment  in  some 
obscure  quarter  of  the  globe,  where  he  died  a disappointed 
man,  fully  sensible  of  the  value  of  the  work  he  had  per- 
formed and  inspired,  a firm  believer  in  the  future  of 
Japan  as  a great  naval  Power,  but  disgusted  with  the 
non-recognition  of  his  labours. 

The  Navy  of  Japan  as  it  is  to-day  is  a triumph  of 
organisation.  Discussing  a short  time  ago  the  question 
with  an  ex-officer  of  the  Mercantile  Marine  who  had,  by 
a curious  chance,  served  as  a Naval  Reserve  officer  in 
both  the  English  and  Japanese  Navies,  he  explained  to 
me  the  wonderful  progress  of  the  latter  by  pointing  out 
that  it  had  been,  as  it  were,  called  instantaneously  into 
existence.  The  Japanese  Navy,  he  observed,  had  no  past 
and  no  traditions  to  hamper  its  development ; its  officers 
and  administrators  had  only  one  desire — to  get  the  best  of 
everything  in  modern  naval  science  from  anywhere.  There 
was  no  cult  of  seamanship,  no  dead  wall  of  prejudice  to 
trammel  modern  naval  developments.  There  was  no  preju- 
dice at  the  Japanese  Admiralty  against  anything — save 
stagnation.  Progress  was  the  keynote  and  watchword  of 
the  Japanese  Navy.  My  friend  assured  me  that  it  was,  as 
regards  equipment,  organisation,  and  general  efficiency,  the 
finest  fighting  force  the  world  has  ever  seen.  So  far  as  my 
own  knowledge  of  the  matter  goes,  and  so  far  as  I am 


128 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


competent  to  express  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  I fully 
endorse  these  observations.  A visit  to  a Japanese  vessel- 
of-war,  however  perfunctory  the  knowledge  of  the  visitor 
may  be  on  matters  naval,  very  soon  convinces  him  of 
the  fact  that  the  Japanese  naval  officers  and  men  are  filled 
not  only  with  ardour  but  enthusiasm  for  their  profession, 
that  efficiency  and  proficiency  are  the  watchwords,  and 
that  the  desire  of  every  one  connected  with  the  Navy, 
from  the  Admiral  downwards,  is  to  maintain  the  personnel 
and  materiel  of  the  Fleet  in  the  highest  possible  condition 
of  efficiency. 

If,  as  some  Englishmen  imagine  is  the  case,  there  is 
a tendency  on  the  part  of  young  Japan  to  be  oblivious 
of  the  fact  that  the  Navy  of  the  country  is  greatly 
indebted  for  its  present  state  of  efficiency  to  the  zeal 
and  efforts  of  English  naval  officers  in  its  early  days, 
there  is  no  question  that  the  feeling  of  the  officers  and 
men  of  the  Japanese  Navy  to  their  English  comrades  is 
of  a very  hearty  nature.  The  formal  alliance  with  Great 
Britain  was  highly  popular  in  the  Japanese  Fleet,  and  I 
have  never  heard  any  officer  connected  therewith  speak 
in  any  but  the  highest  and  most  cordial  terms  of  their 
English  confreres. 

It  is  not,  I think,  necessary  for  me  to  refer  to  the  deeds 
of  and  the  work  done  by  the  Japanese  Navy  in  the  course 
of  the  war  with  Russia  ; very  much  the  same  remarks  that 
I have  made  in  regard  to  the  Army  apply  here.  Nothing 
was  lost  sight  of  or  omitted  that  could  in  the  slightest 
degree  tend  to  ensure  or  secure  success.  Everything 
seems  to  have  been  foreseen.  Nothing  was  left  to  chance. 
The  results  were  precisely  what  might  have  been  expected, 
and  what  indeed  were  expected,  by  those  who  had 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  the 


THE  JAPANESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  129 


Japanese  Navy  was  organised  for  war.  I regard  it 
especially  in  alliance  with  the  English  Fleet,  as  one  of 
the  greatest  safeguards  for  the  peace  of  the  world.  I 
trust  the  alliance  between  this  country  and  Japan  may 
be  of  a permanent  nature.  I may  remark  in  respect 
of  the  Fleet,  as  I have  of  the  Army,  that  Japan  has 
no  unworthy  ambitions.  Her  desire  is  to  conserve  what 
she  possesses  and  to  render  her  Island  Empire  secure 
from  invasion  or  molestation. 

Closely  connected  with  the  development  of  Japan’s 
Navy  is  that  of  her  Mercantile  Marine.  A few  words 
in  regard  to  it  may  therefore  not  be  out  of  place  here. 
The  insular  position  and  the  mountainous  condition  of 
the  country,  as  well  as  its  extent  of  seaboard,  early 
impressed  on  the  makers  of  new  Japan  the  necessity  for 
creating  not  only  a great  mercantile  fleet  but  also  for  de- 
veloping the  shipbuilding  industry.  Both  these  ambitions 
have  been  largely  realised.  At  first  their  consummation 
was  attended  with  many  difficulties.  The  Japanese,  as  I 
have  already  remarked  in  this  book,  were  many  centuries 
ago  enterprising  sailors,  but  when  the  country  was  closed 
voyages  of  discovery  or  trade  automatically  came  to  an 
end.  With  the  awakening  of  Japan  a change  imme- 
diately took  place,  and  steps  were  taken  to  create  and 
develop  the  Mercantile  Marine.  A Japanese  gentleman, 
Mr.  Iwasaki,  in  1872  started  a line  of  steamers,  subsidised 
by  the  Government,  the  well-known  Mitsu  Bishi  Com- 
pany. Shortly  afterwards  another  company  was  formed 
to  compete  against  it.  This  line  was  also  subsidised 
by  the  Government,  but  as  the  rivalry  did  not  prove 
profitable  to  either  the  two  lines  were  amalgamated  in 
1885  under  the  title  of  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha.  Since  then 
a number  of  other  shipping  companies  have  been  formed 

K 


130 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


in  Japan,  and  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  has  largely 
extended  its  operations,  opening  up  communication  with 
Bombay,  England,  and  the  Continent,  Melbourne,  &c.  In 
fact,  the  Japanese  flag  is  now  seen  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  while  the  Japanese  Mercantile  Marine  has  advanced 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  is  still  annually  increasing.  At 
the  end  of  1904  there  were  about  240  steamers  flying  the 
Japanese  flag,  with  a gross  tonnage  of  over  y go, 000. 
Japan  now  ranks  high  among  the  maritime  nations  of 
the  world,  and  her  position  therein,  unless  I am  very 
much  mistaken,  will  still  further  advance  in  the  years 
to  come. 

There  are,  I know,  a great  number  of  worthy  people, 
both  in  this  country  and  Japan,  who  regard  the  expendi- 
ture on  an  Army  and  Navy  as  entirely  unproductive,  and 
look  forward  to  the  halcyon  days  when  all  such  expendi- 
ture shall  cease  and  the  taxation  now  devoted  to  these 
purposes  shall  be  diverted  to  more  worthy  objects.  I am 
afraid,  as  the  world  is  at  present  constituted,  there  is  no 
prospect  of  such  a,  in  some  respects,  desirable  consumma- 
tion being  effected.  Nowadays  the  most  effective  means 
a nation  can  possess  in  the  direction  of  the  maintenance 
and  enjoyment  of  peace  is  to  be  well  prepared  for  war. 
That  is  a fact  of  which  I am  sure  the  men  responsible 
for  the  government  of  Japan  are  firmly  convinced  ; and 
I believe  they  are  right.  I am  certain,  as  I have  said 
before,  that  the  world  has  nothing  to  fear  from  the 
armed  strength  of  Japan  by  land  or  sea. 


CHAPTER  XI 


JAPANESE  ART — INTRODUCTORY — LACQUER  WARE, 
POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN 

JAPANESE  art  is  a subject  which  invites  exhaustive 
treatment.  To  deal  with  it  adequately  in  two  or  three 
chapters  of  a general  work  on  Japan  is  obviously 
impossible.  Still  it  is,  I think,  possible,  within  the  limits 
at  my  disposal,  to  give  my  readers  some  conception  of 
that  art  to  which  Japan  is  so  greatly  indebted  for  the 
extraordinary  way  in  which  she  has  impressed  the  world. 
The  art  of  Japan  is  in  a sense  unique,  and  it  may  be 
that  to  some  extent  the  Japanese  atmosphere,  so  to 
speak,  is  essential  in  order  to  fully  appreciate  it.  Mr. 
Chamberlain,  in  his  “Things  Japanese,”  has  observed  that 
“To  show  a really  fine  piece  of  lacquer  to  one  of  the 
uncultivated  natives  of  Europe  or  America  is,  as  the 
Japanese  proverb  says,  like  giving  guineas  to  a cat.” 
Much  the  same  remark  might,  however,  be  made  in 
reference  to  the  art  products  of  any  country.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  the  Japanese  people  are  now  largely  dependent 
on  the  foreigner  for  art  patronage.  It  may  be  that  this 
has  resulted  in  art-artisans  abandoning  their  old  standard 
and  devoting  themselves  to  the  manufacture  of  what- 
ever pays  best,  prostituting  the  spirit  of  art  to  the 

131 


132 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


promptings  of  gain,  and  compelling  the  native  to  cater  for 
foreign  taste  rather  than  to  adhere  to  Japanese  canons  of 
art.  I am  afraid  that  the  commercial  spirit  is  fatal  to  art 
of  any  kind.  The  true  artist,  like  the  poet,  in  an  ideal 
state  of  existence  would  only  work  under  inspiration,  but, 
unfortunately,  the  artist,  like  the  poet,  is  daily  faced  by 
that  necessity  which  knows  no  law  and  demands  the 
subsistence  of  the  body  as  an  essential  for  work  of 
any  kind. 

Perhaps  some  of  my  readers  might  desire  a definition  of 
art.  There  are,  I know,  people  in  this  world  who  can 
never  approach  the  consideration  of  or  deal  with  any 
subject  unless  the  subject  itself  and  every  term  in  con- 
nection therewith  is  precisely  defined.  In  reference  to 
Japanese  art  I am  inclined  to  employ  the  words  of  Mr. 
Walter  Crane  in  opening,  many  years  ago,  the  annual 
exhibition  of  the  Arts  and  Crafts  Society.  He  remarked : 
“ The  true  root  and  basis  of  all  art  lies  in  the  handicrafts. 
If  there  is  no  room  or  chance  of  recognition  for  really 
artistic  power  and  feeling  in  design  and  craftsmanship — 
if  art  is  not  recognised  in  the  humblest  object  and 
material,  and  felt  to  be  as  valuable,  in  its  own  way,  as 
the  more  highly  rewarded  pictorial  skill — the  art  cannot 
be  in  a sound  condition.  And  if  artists  cease  to  be 
found  among  the  crafts,  there  is  great  danger  that  they 
will  vanish  from  the  arts  also,  and  become  manufac- 
turers and  salesmen  instead.” 

Japanese  art  is  unquestionably  of  that  kind  which 
requires  a certain  educational  process.  It  does  not,  for 
instance,  at  once  appeal  to  that  vague  entity  the  “ man 
in  the  street.”  There  is  a grotesqueness  about  some  of 
it,  a lack  of  perspective  in  much  of  it,  which  is  caviare 
to  a large  number  of  persons.  This  much,  however,  can 


JAPANESE  ART 


133 


be  said  about  Japanese  art — that  it  is  original.  It  is  almost 
altogether  the  outcome  of  the  artistic  instincts  of  the 
people.  Undoubtedly  it  has  been  to  a large  extent  in- 
fluenced by  Buddhism,  and,  as  we  have  seen.  Buddhism 
is  a foreign  religion  ; but  at  the  same  time  I think  it 
may  fairly  be  asserted  that,  though  the  Buddhist  religion 
may  have  influenced  and  utilised  Japanese  art,  it  has  never 
killed,  or  indeed  affected  to  any  degree,  what  I may  term 
the  individualistic  artistic  instincts  of  the  nation.  Japanese 
art  requires  to  be  closely  studied.  It  is  something  that 
grows  upon  one,  and  the  closer  it  is  studied  the  greater  its 
influence.  To  me  one  of  its  most  pleasing  features  is  what 
I have  termed  in  the  Preface  its  catholicity.  It  is  not,  as 
art  is  in  so  many  European  countries,  the  cult  of  a few,  a 
sort  of  Eleusynian  mystery  into  which  a select  number 
of  persons  have  been  initiated.  It  has,  on  the  contrary, 
permeated,  and  exercised  an  influence  upon,  the  whole 
nation,  and  been  employed  for  even  the  most  humble 
purposes.  It  is  for  this  reason  that,  as  I have  previously 
observed,  I am  of  opinion  the  Japanese  may  be  considered 
and  described  as  the  most  artistic  people  in  the  world. 

I have  referred  to  the  grotesqueness  and  lack  of  perspec- 
tive incidental  to  some  descriptions  of  Japanese  art.  It 
certainly  neglects  chiaroscuro  and  linear  perspective,  and 
it  displays  an  entire  lack  of  form  knowledge.  The  human 
figure  and  face  have  apparently  never  been  studied  at  all. 
The  colouring  is  frequently  splendid,  while  the  figures  are 
for  the  most  part  anatomically  incorrect.  One  would 
think  that  Japanese  artists  had  never  seen  their  own  or 
any  other  human  bodies.  A rigid  adherence  to  con- 
ventionality is,  in  my  opinion,  a defect  of  all  Japanese 
art.  By  conventionality  I do  not,  of  course,  mean  what  I 
may  term  the  individuality  of  the  art  itself,  but  the  fact 


134 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


that  Japanese  artists  have  felt  themselves  largely  bound  by 
the  traditions  of  their  art  to  treat  the  human  and  other 
figures  not  in  accordance  with  nature,  but  altogether  in 
accordance  with  the  conventions  of  that  art,  and  to 
entirely  ignore  perspective.  I am  quite  aware  that  some 
enthusiastic  lovers  of  things  Japanese  admire,  or  affect 
to  admire,  these  defects.  They  have  been  described  as 
a protest  against  the  too  rigid  rules  exacted  in  Western 
art.  I suggest,  however,  that  art  in  its  highest  form 
should  seek  to  be  true  to  nature,  and  in  so  far  as  Japanese 
art  fails  in  this  respect  it  is,  I think,  defective.  At  the 
same  time  I cordially  admit  that  its  defects  are  more 
than  compensated  by  its  splendid  workmanship,  its 
gorgeous  colouring,  and  its  striking  originality. 

It  was  only  about  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  that  Japanese 
art  became  known  to  any  extent  in  Europe.  Certainly 
the  Portuguese  missionaries  introduced  by  Francis  Xavier 
and  the  traders  in  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki  were 
in  the  habit  of  exporting  a few  articles  to  Europe,  chiefly 
porcelain  ware  made  to  order.  I fear  both  missionaries 
and  merchants  regarded  Japanese  art,  as  we  now 
know  it,  as  barbaric,  and  never  in  the  slightest  degree 
realised  either  its  beauties  or  its  originality.  Neither 
they  nor  the  many  millions  of  art-lovers  in  Europe 
dreamt  that  Japan  was  a country  where  art  was  universal, 
not  esoteric — an  art  with  schools,  traditions,  masters,  and 
masterpieces.  Probably  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867, 
to  which  the  Prince  of  Satsuma  sent  a collection  of 
Japanese  artistic  treasures,  was  the  occasion  when  the 
true  inwardness  of  Japanese  art  burst  upon  the  Western 
world  as  a whole.  It  was  a veritable  revelation.  It 
at  once  aroused  enthusiasm  and  curiosity,  and  I fear 
cupidity,  among  European  artists  and  art  collectors. 


JAPANESE  ART 


135 


Europe  was  awakened  to  the  possibilities  of  Japan  as 
an  art  nation,  and  Japan,  failing  to  realise  or  properly 
appreciate  the  artistic  accumulated  wealth  it  possessed, 
commenced  to  part  with  it  in  a truly  reckless  manner. 
The  depletion  of  the  art  treasures  of  the  country  com- 
menced about  this  time,  and  though  that  depletion  has 
been  largely  arrested,  it  is  nevertheless  still,  to  some 
extent,  going  on. 

Japanese  art,  as  it  has  come  under  the  cognisance  of 
a foreigner,  may  be  considered  in  connection  with  four 
or  five  purposes  to  which  it  has  been  employed  or  adapted. 
First  amongst  these  I place  lacquer,  next  pottery  and 
porcelain,  then  carving  in  wood  and  iron,  metal-work  and 
painting.  The  lacquer  industry  has  been  in  existence 
in  Japan  so  long  as  we  have  any  authoritative  history 
of  the  country.  If  any  credence  is  to  be  given  to  tradition, 
long  before  the  Christian  era  there  was  an  official  whose 
sole  duty  it  was  to  superintend  the  production  of  lacquer 
for  the  Imperial  Court,  and  specimens  over  a thousand 
years  old,  though  rare,  still  exist.  The  process  of  lacquer- 
ing is  a somewhat  intricate  one,  and  varies,  of  course, 
in  accordance  with  the  time  and  labour  spent  on  the 
article  to  be  lacquered,  and  the  cost  of  the  same.  After 
the  article  has  been  carefully  made  from  specially  selected 
wood — in  the  case  of  the  choicest  specimens  of  lacquer 
work  this  is  usually  a pine-wood  of  fine  grain — it  is  first 
coated  with  a preparation  composed  of  clay  and  varnish, 
which,  after  being  permitted  to  dry,  is  smoothed  down 
with  a whetstone.  When  this  operation  has  been  con- 
cluded, the  article  proposed  to  be  lacquered  is  covered 
with  some  substance,  either  silk,  cloth,  or  paper.  It  is 
then  given  from  one  to  five  coats  of  the  foregoing  mixture, 
each  coat  being  permitted  to  dry  before  the  next  is 


136 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


applied.  After  this  has  been  effected,  the  whetstone 
is  again  employed  with  a view  of  obtaining  a perfectly 
smooth  surface  when  the  lacquering  proper  commences. 
This  may  be  a perfunctory  or  it  may  be  a very  com- 
plicated operation,  according  to  the  value  of  the  article, 
layer  after  layer  of  the  varnish — from  one  to  fifty  coats — 
being  laid  upon  the  material  at  intervals.  After  the  final 
coat  has  been  applied,  the  smoothing  process  commences. 
The  whole  of  these  operations  are,  however,  only  the 
preliminaries  to  the  scheme  of  decoration,  which  is  often 
very  elaborate.  The  dusts  of  powders  used  for  this 
purpose  are  of  various  kinds  and  of  varying  cost.  When 
the  ornamentation  which  often  consists  in  colouring  the 
groundwork  with  particles  of  gold  dust  has  been  com- 
pleted, sometimes  as  many  as  a dozen  coatings  of  trans- 
parent lacquer  are  imposed  upon  the  same. 

The  art  of  lacquering  in  Japan  dates  back  at  least 
1,200  or  1,300  years,  and  tradition  assigns  it  a period  more 
ancient  still.  There  are,  however,  few  if  any  articles 
of  lacquer  ware  now  in  the  country,  whose  origin  can 
be  traced  back  so  many  years.  At  any  rate,  there  is 
no  satisfactory  evidence  in  regard  to  the  antiquity  of 
any  specimens  of  lacquer  ware  dating  back  more  than 
seven  or  eight  centuries.  In  old  Japan  the  manufac- 
turer of  lacquer  work  was  intimately  associated  with  the 
domestic  life  of  the  upper  classes.  Griffis  tells  us  that 
nearly  every  Daimio  had  his  Court  lacquerer,  and  that 
a set  of  household  furniture  and  toilet  utensils  was  part 
of  the  dowry  of  a noble  lady.  On  the  birth  of  a daughter, 
he  relates,  it  was  common  for  the  lacquer  artist  to  begin 
the  making  of  a mirror  case,  a washing  bowl,  a cabinet, 
a clothes  rack,  or  a chest  of  drawers,  often  occupying  from 
one  to  five  whole  years  on  a single  article.  An  inro,  or 


JAPANESE  ART 


137 


pill-box,  might  require  several  years  for  perfection,  though 
small  enough  to  go  into  a fob.  By  the  time  the  young 
lady  was  marriageable,  her  outfit  of  lacquer  was  superb. 

The  names  of  many  of  the  great  lacquer  artists  of 
Japan  are  still  venerated.  The  masterpieces  of  Hoyami 
Koyetsu  who  flourished  in  the  sixteenth  century,  are 
still,  though  rare,  procurable.  Japan  numbers  on  her  roll 
of  fame  twenty-eight  great  lacquer  artists.  There  have, 
of  course,  been  many  hundreds,  and  indeed  thousands, 
in  the  past  centuries  whose  work  was  superb,  but  the 
twenty-eight  are  deemed  to  be  the  immortals  of  this 
particular  art.  One  of  these  great  men,  Ogawa  Ritsuo, 
is  famous  for  the  number  and  variety  of  the  materials — 
mother-of-pearl,  coral,  tortoise-shell,  &c.  &c.,  he  used  in 
his  work.  A profuse  richness  is  its  chief  characteristic. 
One  of  his  pupils  imitated  in  his  work  various  materials — 
pottery  and  wood-carving,  and  bronzes.  The  last  famous 
artist  in  lacquer,  Watanobe  Tosu,  died  about  thirty  years 
ago.  Whether  he  is  destined  to  have  a successor  or 
' successors  remains  to  be  seen.  These  lacquer  artists, 
as  I have  indicated,  worked  not  for  lucre,  but  for  love. 
Attached  to  some  Daimios  household,  they  devoted  their 
I lives,  their  energies,  their  imagination,  their  artistic  in- 
stincts to  the  devising  of  splendid  work  and  the  making 
of  beautiful,  ingenious,  absolutely  artistic  and,  at  the 
I same  time,  entirely  useful  articles. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  space  at  my  disposal  to  deal 
I in  detail  with  the  large  variety  of  lacquer  work  produced 
I in  Japan  with  the  various  kinds  of  lacquer,  or  with  what 
I may  term  the  artistic  idiosyncrasies  of  Japanese  lacquer 
work.  One  can  now  hardly  believe  that  until  the  opening  up 
of  Japan  half  a century  or  so  ago,  few  specimens  of  lacquer 
found  their  way  to  Europe,  although  Japanese  porcelain 


138 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


had  been  largely  imported  and  was  highly  prized.  Even 
at  the  present  time  I do  not  think  that  the  artistic  beauties 
of  Japanese  lacquer  work  have  been  appreciated  in  this 
country  to  anything  like  the  extent  they  deserve  to  be. 
I have  heard  people  remark,  for  example,  that  they  failed 
to  understand  the  perpetual  reproduction  of  the  great 
snow-covered  mountain  Fusi-Yama  in  Japanese  designs, 
while  they  could  see  nothing  in  these  storks,  bewildering 
landscapes,  and  grotesque  figures.  Perhaps  the  best  ex- 
planation of  the  constant  appearance  of  Fusi-Yama  in 
all  Japanese  work  is  that  which  De  Fonblanque  gives. 
He  says:  “If  there  is  one  sentiment  universal  amongst 
all  Japanese,  it  is  a deep  and  earnest  reverence  for  their 
sacred  mountain.  It  is  their  ideal  of  the  beautiful  in 
nature,  and  they  never  tire  of  admiring,  glorifying,  and 
reproducing  it.  It  is  painted,  embossed,  carved,  engraved, 
modelled  in  all  their  wares.  The  mass  of  the  people 
regard  it  not  only  as  the  shrine  of  their  dearest  gods, 
but  the  certain  panacea  for  their  worst  evils,  from  im- 
pending bankruptcy  or  cutaneous  diseases  to  unrequited 
love  or  ill-luck  at  play.  It  is  annually  visited  by  thousands 
and  thousands  of  pilgrims.”  The  Japanese  artist  in  con- 
stantly reproducing  Fusi-Yama  has  merely  voiced  national 
sentiment  and  feeling. 

The  substance  applied  to  wood  to  produce  what  is  called 
lacquer,  is  not  what  is  generally  known  in  England  as 
varnish.  It  is  really  the  sap  of  the  rhus  vernicifera 
which  contains,  among  other  ingredients,  about  3 per 
cent,  of  a gum  soluble  in  water.  It  has  to  undergo  various 
refining  processes  before  being  mixed  with  the  colouring 
matter,  while  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  throughout 
with  a view  of  obviating  the  possibility  of  dust  or  any 
other  foreign  matter  finding  its  way  into  the  mixture. 


VIEW  OF  FUSI-YAMA  FROM  A TEA  HOUSE 


FROM  A PRINT  BY  HIROSHIGE 


JAPANESE  ART 


139 


The  fine  polish  usually  seen  on  lacquer  work  is  not 
actually  the  result  of  the  composition  applied,  but  is 
produced  by  incessant  polishing.  The  lacquered  articles 
in  old  Japan  were  used  for  various  purposes — mirror  cases, 
fans,  letter-carriers,  the  inro,  which  was  at  one  time  a 
necessary  part  of  every  Japanese  gentleman’s  attire;  it 
was  secured  to  the  sash,  and  utilised  to  hold  medicine 
powders,  for  perfumes,  as  a seal-box,  &c.,  seals  being  at 
one  time,  as  indeed  they  are  to  some  extent  still,  in  use  in 
place  of  a signature.  But  the  amount  of  ancient  lacquer 
ware  now  in  Japan,  or,  indeed,  of  artistic  articles  made 
solely  for  use  and  not  merely  to  sell,  is,  as  I have  said, 
small.  European  collectors  have  denuded  the  country ; 
the  treasures  of  the  Daimios,  which  were  almost  recklessly 
sold  when  they  were  disestablished,  and  to  a large  extent 
disendowed,  have  been  distributed  all  over  the  globe,  and 
a large  quantity,  perhaps  the  largest  quantity,  of  the 
lacquer  work  now  made  in  the  country  is  manufactured 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  being  sold  as  curios  either  at 
home  or  abroad.  That  this  fact  has  largely  lowered  the 
artistic  ideals  and  debased  the  artistic  taste  in  Japan 
appears  to  be  the  general  opinion.  Much  of  the  present- 
day  work  of  Japan  in  lacquer,  as  in  other  articles,  is 
certainly  to  my  mind  artistic  and  beautiful  in  the  extreme, 
but  obviously,  men  working  almost  against  time  to  turn 
out  “curios,”  for  which  there  is  a persistent  demand  on 
the  part  of  visitors  who  are  not  always  by  temperament 
or  training  fitted  to  appreciate  the  artistic  or  the  beautiful, 
are  unlikely  to  produce  such  fine  or  original  work  as  the 
artisan  of  old  leisurely  employed  at  his  craft  and  pluming 
himself,  not  on  the  amount  of  his  earnings  or  the  extent 
of  his  output,  but  on  the  quality  and  artistic  merits  of 
his  work. 


140 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Next  to  lacquer  in  importance  amongst  the  Japanese 
arts,  I think,  comes  ceramic  ware,  which  has  long  had  a 
great  vogue  in  Europe,  and  indeed  was  highly  prized  here 
many  years  before  the  artistic  skill  of  the  Japanese  in 
lacquer  was  generally  known.  That  decorative  art,  as 
expressed  in  the  pottery  and  porcelain  of  Japan,  has  been 
largely  influenced  by  China  and  Korea  seems  to  be  un- 
questionable. The  Japanese  have  nevertheless  imparted 
to  it  a peculiar  charm  of  their  own,  the  outcome  of 
originality  in  ideas,  while  the  art  has,  through  many 
centuries,  been  fortunate  enough  to  have  been  fostered  and 
encouraged  by  the  great  and  powerful  of  the  land.  As  a 
people  the  Japanese  are  entirely  free  from  anything  that 
savours  of  ostentation,  and  this  fact  is  emphasised  in  their 
art  just  as  it  is  in  their  homes.  The  charm  of  the  ceramic 
ware  of  Japan,  in  my  opinion,  consists  in  the  beauty  of 
its  colouring  rather  than  in  its  figuring.  This  ceramic 
ware,  as  my  readers  probably  know,  differs  greatly  in 
appearance,  quality,  and,  I may  add,  in  price  according  to 
the  particular  part  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  produced. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  be  an  art  connoisseur  to  grasp  the 
fact  that,  say,  the  famous  Satsuma  ware  is  distinct  in 
almost  every  respect  from  that  of  Imari,  Kaga,  Ise,  Raku, 
Kyoto,  &c.  All  these  different  wares  have  charms 
peculiar  to  each.  It  is  really  marvellous  to  think  that  a 
country  with  such  a comparatively  small  area  as  Japan 
should  have  produced  so  many  different  kinds  of  ceramic 
ware,  each  possessing  distinct  and  pronounced  character- 
istics, and  having  indeed  little  affinity  with  each  other  save 
in  regard  to  the  general  excellence  of  the  workmanship 
and  the  artistic  completeness  of  the  whole. 

As  I have  said,  both  Korea  and  China  have  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and 


JAPANESE  ART 


141 


( porcelain  in  Japan.  Korean  potters  appear  to  have 
j settled  there  prior  to  the  Christian  era,  and  to  have 
t imparted  to  the  Japanese  the  first  rudiments  of  knowledge 
1 in  regard  to  working  in  clay,  but  the  development  of  the 
, process  was  greatly  due  to  Chinese  influences.  During  the 
thirteenth  century,  one  Toshiro  paid  a visit  to  China, 

I where  he  exhaustively  studied  everything  relating  to  the 
potter’s  art.  On  his  return  to  his  own  country  he  intro- 
duced great  improvements,  both  in  manufacture  and 
decoration,  and  made,  it  is  believed,  for  the  first  time, 

• glazed  pottery.  Soon  afterwards  household  utensils  of 
lacquer  began  to  go  out  of  use,  being  replaced  by  those 
made  of  clay,  and  a great  impetus  was  accordingly  given 
to  the  trade  of  the  potter.  Tea,  which  is  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Japan  from  China  in  the  year  800 
does  not  appear  to  have  come  into  general  use  till  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  “ tea  ceremonies  ” known  as  the 
Cha-no-yu  came  into  vogue  about  the  same  time,  and 
undoubtedly  had  an  immense  influence  on  the  ceramic 
art.  The  articles  used  in  the  “ tea  ceremonies  ” included 
an  iron  kettle  resting  on  a stand  ; a table  or  stand  of 
mulberry  wood  2 feet  high ; two  tea-jars  containing  the 
tea  ; a vessel  containing  fresh  water  ; a tea-bowl.  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  describe  the  many  interesting  details  of 
these  “ tea  ceremonies.”  Suffice  it  to  observe  that  they 
gave  a great  impetus  to  the  manufacture  of  costly  and 
elaborate  china.  The  leaders  of  society,  as  we  should 
term  them,  who  took  part  in  these  ceremonies  exercised  a 
judicious  and  enlightened  patronage  of  the  ceramic  art. 
They  encouraged  rising  talent,  and  welcomed  new  develop- 
ments. There  can,  I think,  be  no  doubt  that  Japan,  in  an 
artistic  sense,  owes  much  to  the  frequenters  of  these  “ tea 
ceremonies.”  Tea-jars  and  tea-bowls  especially  became. 


142 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


under  the  patronage  and  guidance  of  these  men,  choice 
works  of  art,  and  were  bestowed  by  the  great  and  power- 
ful on  their  friends,  by  whom  they  were  greatly  cherished 
and  handed  down  as  heirlooms.  Some  of  these  treasures 
still  remain  in  the  country,  a large  number  have  been 
purchased  by  art  connoisseurs  and  taken  to  various  parts 
of  the  world,  while  many,  of  course,  have  from  various 
causes  perished.  Under  the  conditions  of  life  which 
obtained  in  old  Japan  the  ceramic  art  reached  a pitch 
of  excellence,  not  to  say  glory,  which  it  is  never  likely  to 
attain  either  in  Japan  or  elsewhere.  It  was  emphatically 
a period  of  art  for  art’s  sake.  The  patronage,  if  I may 
use  a word  perhaps  not  strictly  accurate,  of  the  great 
artists  of  those  days  was  exercised  in  such  a manner  as  to 
enable  them  to  employ  all  their  talents,  artistic  ideals,  and 
enthusiasm  in  the  direction  of  producing  masterpieces  of 
their  craft. 

The  secrets  of  porcelain  manufacture  are  believed  to 
have  been  brought  to  Japan  from  China  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  year  1513,  Gorodayu, 
Shonsui,  of  Ise,  returned  from  China  and  settled  in  Arita, 
in  the  province  of  Hizen,  which  at  once  became  and  still 
remains  the  headquarters  of  the  famous  Imari  ware.  The 
porcelain  produced  here  is  chiefly,  but  not  altogether,  the 
blue  and  white  combination,  but  Arita  also  makes  porce- 
lain ware  decorated  in  various  colours  and  exceedingly 
ornate  in  appearance.  It  is,  however,  stated  that  this 
ornate  Imari  ware  was  first  made  for  exportation  to  China 
to  supply  the  Portuguese  market  at  Macao,  and  that  it 
was  afterwards  fostered  by  the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki, 
whose  exportations  of  the  ware  to  Europe  were  on  a 
considerable  scale.  This  peculiar  style  of  decoration  is 
believed  to  have  been  due  to  the  demands  of  the  Dutch, 


JAPANESE  ART 


143 


whose  patrons  in  Europe  would  have  none  other.  One 
remark  I may  make  in  this  connection,  viz.,  that  those 
enormous  vases  and  other  similar  articles  of  Japanese 
ware  which  have  long  been  so  greatly  prized  in  Europe, 
and  many  of  which  are  magnificent  specimens  of  decora- 
tive art,  are  not,  in  one  sense,  characteristically  Japanese. 
The  Japanese  has  always,  if  I may  so  express  it,  used  art 
as  the  handmaiden  of  utilitarianism.  Every  article  in- 
tended for  the  Japanese  home  had  to  be  not  merely  a 
thing  of  beauty  but  a thing  for  use.  It  never  entered  the 
minds  of  the  Japanese  to  hang  beautiful  specimens  of  their 
porcelain  ware  on  their  walls,  or  what  did  duty  for  walls, 
to  collect  dust.  They  used  vases  certainly  of  a moderate 
size  to  hold  flowers,  tea-pots  and  tea-cups  for  the  purpose 
of  making  and  drinking  tea,  water-bottles  and  various 
other  articles  for  domestic  use  ; everything  in  fact  was,  as 
I have  said,  designed  not  only  from  an  artistic  but  a 
utilitarian  standpoint,  and  hence  it  is,  I think,  that  art, 
as  I have  already  remarked,  has  permeated  the  whole 
people.  Even  in  the  poorest  house  in  Japan  it  is  possible 
to  see,  in  the  ordinary  articles  in  domestic  use,  some 
attempt  at  art,  and,  I may  add,  some  appreciation  of  it  on 
the  part  of  the  users  of  those  articles.  In  my  opinion 
when  art  is  not  applied  to  articles  of  general  utility  but  is 
confined  to  articles  not  intended  for  use,  art  becomes,  as  is 
largely  the  case  in  this  country,  either  the  cult  of  a class 
or  the  affectation  of  a class,  and  its  beauties  and  inward 
meaning  cease  to  have  any  effect  upon,  just  because  they 
are  not  understood  by,  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

Satsuma  ware  is  probably  the  most  widely  known,  and 
the  most  esteemed  among  foreigners,  of  Japanese  porce- 
lain. Its  soft,  cream-like  colour  is  now  known  in  every 
part  of  the  world,  while  the  delicate  colour  decorations 


144 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


imposed  upon  the  cream-like  background,  certainly  give  a 
most  effective  appearance.  I question  however  whether, 
from  a purely  artistic  standpoint,  Satsuma  is  worthy  of 
being  compared  with  many  of  the  other  porcelains  in 
Japan.  Much  of  it  as  seen  in  Europe  was  specially  made 
for  Europe,  and  having  been  so  is,  I suggest,  not  in  the 
true  sense  artistic.  As  a matter  of  fact  Satsuma  ware  was 
introduced  from  Korea,  and  was  made  in  the  first  instance 
solely  for  the  use  of  the  Prince  of  Satsuma  and  his  friends. 
The  kilns  were  originally  built  on  Korean  models,  and  the 
potters  in  Satsuma  remained  a class  apart,  not  being 
allowed  to  marry  with  the  outside  world. 

Kaga  ware  is  well  known  to  all  art  connoisseurs.  This 
porcelain  is  rare.  The  masters  of  the  art  of  Kaga  ware, 
with  its  exquisite  colouring  and  elaborate  ornamentation 
in  gold  and  silver,  have  left  no  successors,  while  their 
output  was  small.  The  ware  is  of  course  still  made,  and  as 
the  clay  of  the  district  is  of  a dark  red  colour,  the  ware 
has  a uniform  tint. 

Bizen  ware  reached  the  apotheosis  of  its  perfection  just 
before  the  Revolution.  It  is  made  in  the  province  of 
Bizen.  The  better  kind  is  made  of  a white  or  light  bluish 
clay,  and  well  baked  in  order  to  receive  the  red-brown 
colour,  whereas  the  commoner  kind  is  of  a red  clay. 

The  various  Kyoto  wares  are  remarkable  for  their  quaint 
forms,  and  some  of  them  are  highly  prized. 

It  would,  of  course,  be  impossible  for  me  to  attempt  in 
detail  a description  of  the  other  very  numerous  ceramic 
wares  of  Japan.  Undoubtedly,  as  I have  said,  Satsuma  is 
the  most  popular  with  Europeans,  but  it  is  not,  and  I do 
not  think  it  deserves  to  be,  the  most  highly  prized  by 
art  connoisseurs.  The  ceramic  wares  of  Japan  may  be 
classified  under  three  headings  : (i)  Pottery,  ornamented 


JAPANESE  ART 


145 


by  scoring  and  glazing  ; (2)  A cream-coloured  faience  with 
a glaze  often  crackled  and  delicately  painted  ; (3)  Hard 
porcelain.  Under  the  first  of  these  classifications  may  be 
included  Bizen,  Seto,  Raku,  and  some  other  wares.  Under 
the  second  I place  Satsuma  and  some  less  important 
similar  products.  Among  the  porcelains  the  most  famous 
are  those  of  Kutania,  Hizen,  and  Kyoto.  In  regard  to 
decorations,  the  Japanese  have  utilised  the  seven  gods  of 
good  fortune,  many  landscapes,  a few  of  the  domestic 
animals — the  dragon,  phoenix,  an  animal  with  the  body 
and  hoofs  of  a deer,  the  tail  of  a bull,  and  with  a horn  on 
its  forehead,  a monster  lion,  and  the  sacred  tortoise.  Trees, 
plants,  grasses,  and  flowers  of  various  kinds,  and  some  of 
the  badges  in  Japanese  heraldry  are  also  largely  made  use 
of.  However  grotesque  some  of  these  objects  may  be,  or 
however  grotesque  the  representations  of  animals  and  even 
landscapes  may  be,  no  one  who  has  closely  studied  it  can 
deny  the  fact  that  the  effect  of  Japanese  decorative  art  as 
applied  to  the  ceramic  ware  of  the  country  is,  on  the 
whole,  magnificent.  The  more  one  studies  it  the  more 
impressed  one  is  with  its  marvellous  beauty  and  the 
originality  which  has  been  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  I 
defy  any  man  or  woman,  who  possesses  the  artistic  sensi- 
bilities, even  in  a latent  degree,  to  visit  a gallery  containing 
the  masterpieces  of  Japanese  ceramic  art,  closely  study 
them  in  all  their  details,  and  minutely  examine  the  atten- 
tion which  the  artist  has  given  to  even  the  smallest  of 
those  details  without  being  impressed  by  its  power.  It  is, 
I consider,  a liberal  education  to  any  person  who  has  the 
slightest  prepossession  for  art  to  wander  through  such  a 
gallery  and  admire  the  masterpieces  of  these  wonderful 
art-workers  of  Japan. 

The  demand  for  the  various  art  products  of  Japan  in 


146 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


both  Europe  and  America  has  had  its  perhaps  inevitable 
result  in  not  only  the  manufacture  of  articles  simply  and 
solely  for  the  foreign  market,  but  in  the  what  I may  term 
faking  of  modern  to  represent  ancient  art  productions. 
“ Old  ” Satsuma,  for  example,  is  a case  in  point.  The 
genuine  old  Satsuma  ware,  by  constant  use,  obtained,  like 
meerschaum,  a delightful  tint.  Modern  Satsuma  is  com- 
paratively white,  and  so,  in  order  to  pander  to  the  taste 
of  the  European  collector  of  the  ancient  article,  the 
modern  is  stained  to  the  required  shade.  The  article 
itself  is  genuine,  and  indeed  beautiful,  but  this  “faking” 
of  it  to  meet  European  and  American  tastes  is  one  of  the 
results,  I fear,  of  Western  influences.  What  the  precise 
effect  of  European  influences  may  be  on  the  old  porcelain 
art  of  Japan  it  is  impossible  to  say.  So  far  as  I am  con- 
cerned, I have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  my  own  opinion 
that  it  will  not  be  a healthy  influence.  Art  for  art’s  sake 
is,  I admit,  difficult  when  the  plutocrats  of  the  West,  with 
a craze  or  a fad  for  Eastern  art,  are  pouring  out  their 
wealth  in  order  to  obtain  specimens  thereof.  Demand 
usually  induces  supply,  and  the  Japanese  artisan  of 
to-day  would  be  more  than  human  did  he  not  respond 
to  the  demand  of  the  West  for  “ Old  Satsuma  ” and 
other  specimens  of  the  artistic  treasures  in  pottery  and 
porcelain  of  Japan.  The  spirit  of  commercialism  is,  as 
I have  said  before,  fatal  to  art.  If  the  artist  is  forced  to 
work  quickly  and  cheaply  he  quite  evidently  cannot  bring 
his  individuality  into  play.  He  must  transform  his  studio 
into  a workshop,  and  ponder  only,  or  chiefly,  upon  the 
possibility  of  his  output.  I have  been  much  struck  in 
this  connection  with  the  remarks  of  a writer  in  regard  to 
orders  for  art  work  sent  from  New  York  to  Japan.  “ I 
can  remember,”  he  said,  “one  of  our  great  New  York 


KUTANI  EARTHENWARE.  DECORATED  WITH  POLYCHROME  ENAMELS 

EARLY  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


INCENSE-LURXER 


AVVATA  FAVEN'CE.  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


1b 


JAPANESE  APT 


147 


dealers  marking  on  his  samples  the  colours  that  pleased 
most  of  his  buyers,  who  themselves  were  to  place  the 
goods.  All  other  colours  or  patterns  were  tabooed  in 
his  instructions  to  the  makers  in  Japan.  This  was  the 
rude  mechanism  of  the  change,  the  coming  down  to  the 
worst  public  taste,  which  must  be  that  of  the  greatest 
number  at  any  time.” 

As  regards  the  modern  porcelain  of  Japan  I need  say 
but  little.  Originality  is  apparently  dead,  and  the  makers 
of  to-day  are  content  to  copy  the  past.  No  doubt  the 
purely  mechanical  processes  of  manufacture  have  been 
greatly  improved,  and  much,  if  not  most,  of  the  modern 
ceramic  ware  of  Japan  is  extremely  beautiful.  At  the 
same  time  some  of  it,  especially  that  which  is  made 
solely  for  the  foreign  market,  is  to  my  mind  neither 
artistic  nor  beautiful.  It  is  decorated,  if  I may  use  such 
a term,  in  most  of  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  and 
rendered  more  gaudy  still  by  a plethora  of  very  poor 
gilding. 

There  is  in  Japan  a certain  school  of  progressive  ideas 
in  reference  to  the  art  of  the  country.  This  school  is  of 
opinion  that  Japanese  art  should  not,  so  to  speak,  remain 
stereotyped,  but  that  it  should  assimilate  and  adapt  and 
apply  all  that  is  good  and  beautiful  in  Western  art.  The 
objects  that  this  school  has  in  view  are  no  doubt  laudable, 
but  I confess  I hope  with  all  my  heart  that  those  objects 
will  fail  of  accomplishment.  There  has  been  already  far 
too  much  Europeanising  of  Japanese  art,  and  the  result,  so 
far  as  I have  been  able  to  judge,  is  not  encouraging  in 
respect  of  any  further  advance  or  development  in  that 
direction.  Japanese  art,  and  especially  the  ceramic  art, 
possesses,  as  I have  before  said,  an  individuality  which 
can  only  be  spoiled,  even  if  it  be  not  destroyed,  by  adding 


148 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


on  to  or  mixing  up  with  it  the  totally  distinct  art  and  art 
methods  of  Western  civilisation.  Were  this  done  it  would 
become  a bastard  or  a mongrel  art,  and,  as  history 
affords  abundant  evidence,  would  in  due  course  lapse 
into  a condition  of  utter  decadence. 

Quite  a volume  might  be  written  on  the  subject  of 
marks  on  Japanese  pottery  and  porcelain.  These  have 
long  interested  and  frequently  misled  the  collector. 
They  are  of  various  kinds.  Sometimes  there  is  a mark 
signifying  the  reign  or  part  of  the  reign  of  an  emperor, 
or  the  name  of  a place  at  which  the  article  was  made, 
or,  more  frequently  still,  the  name  of  the  particular  potter 
whose  handicraft  it  was.  Sometimes  Chinese  dates  are 
found  impressed  on  the  article  without  any  regard  to 
chronological  correctness.  Indeed,  Chinese  dates  are  to 
be  found  on  Japanese  porcelain  indicating  a period  long 
anterior  to  that  in  which  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  was 
known  in  Japan.  These  spurious  dates  have  proved  pit- 
falls  for  collectors.  The  mark  is  sometimes  impressed 
with  a seal  or  painted  ; occasionally  it  is  merely  scratched. 
The  investigation  of  these  marks  is  a recondite  study 
assuredly  full  of  interest,  but,  as  I have  said,  prolific  in 
pitfalls  for  the  unwary  or  the  too-credulous. 


CHAPTER  XII 


JAPANESE  ART  {contimced) — SCULPTURE — METAL 
WORK — PAINTING 

PROBABLY  of  all  the  Japanese  arts  there  is  none 
more  interesting  or  instructive  than  that  of  sculpture 
in  wood  and  ivory.  The  sculpture  of  Japan  undoubtedly 
had  its  origin  in  the  service  of  the  Buddhist  religion. 
That  religion,  as  I have  attempted  to  show,  has  always 
utilised  art  in  the  decoration  of  its  temples  and  shrines  as 
well  as  in  the  perpetuation  of  the  image  of  Buddha  him- 
self. At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  an 
edict  was  promulgated  directing  that  every  house  should 
contain  a representation  of  Buddha,  and,  as  the  result  of 
this,  the  sculpture  trade  received  a considerable  impetus. 
Tobacco  was  introduced  into  the  country  in  the  same 
century,  and  the  smoking  thereof  soon  came  greatly  into 
vogue  among  the  Japanese  people.  Tobacco  necessitated 
a pouch  or  bag  to  contain  the  same,  and  this  in  turn 
induced  or  produced  the  manufacture  of  something 
wherewith  to  attach  the  bag  to  the  girdle.  Hence  the 
evolution  of  the  netsuk^,  now  as  famous  in  Europe  as 
in  Japan.  The  carving  of  netsuk^s  developed  into  a very 
high  art  ; indeed,  there  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  Japanese 
art  which  has  aroused  more  enthusiasm  among  foreign 

149 


150 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


collectors  and  connoisseurs.  Quite  recently  I attended 
a sale  of  netsuk^s  in  London  at  which  the  bidding  was 
both  fast  and  furious,  while  the  prices  realised  were 
enormous.  The  netsuk^  strictly  speaking,  was  the 
toggle  attached  by  a cord  to  the  tobacco  pouch,  inro, 
or  pipe  of  the  Japanese  man,  with  the  object  of  pre- 
venting the  article  slipping  through  the  girdle  or  sash, 
but  the  word  has  been  more  loosely  employed  by 
foreigners  until,  in  popular  parlance,  it  has  come  to 
embrace  all  small  carvings.  Netsuk^s  were  nearly 
always  representations  of  the  human  figure,  and  various 
reasons  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  this  fact.  I 
need  not  consider  those  reasons  in  these  pages,  as  they, 
as  well  as  the  arguments  by  which  they  are  attempted  to 
be  supported,  are  almost  entirely  speculative.  The  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  the  true  netsukd  is  two  holes 
admitting  of  a string  being  run  through  them.  These 
holes  were  often  concealed  behind  the  limbs  of  the 
figure.  The  material  of  which  netsukes  were  made 
varied,  and  consisted  of  ivory,  wood  horns,  fish-bones, 
and  stones  of  various  kinds.  Those  made  of  wood  are 
undoubtedly  the  most  ancient,  ivory  being  of  compara- 
tively recent  importation  into  Japan.  Nevertheless,  the 
netsukes  made  of  ivory  now  command  the  highest  price. 
The  names  of  many  of  the  great  netsuke-makers  are 
still  famous,  and  much  of  their  work  is  certainly  artistic 
and  beautiful  to  a degree.  I am  afraid  that  in  the  col- 
lecting of  netsukes  many  European  lovers  of  Japanese 
art  have  burnt  their  fingers.  The  genuine  old  artistic 
productions  are  now  extremely  rare,  but  a brisk  trade 
has  sprung  up  in  reproductions  which  are  skilfully 
coloured  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  age.  The 
netsuk^,  I must  reiterate,  was  an  almost  indispensable 


JAPANESE  ART 


151 


adjunct  to  the  costume  of  every  Japanese  man,  and  it 
was,  accordingly,  made  for  use  and  not  for  ornament 
alone.  Of  late  years  wood  and  ivory  sculpture  in  Japan 
has  largely  degenerated  and  deteriorated  owing  to  the 
output  of  articles  not  of  utility,  but  made  for  the  foreign 
market — “ curios,”  in  fact. 

No  one  who  has  visited  Japan  can  have  failed  of  being 
impressed  by  those  gigantic  statues  of  Buddha  which  have 
been  erected  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  largest 
and  best  known  is  the  Dai  Butsu,  at  Kamakura,  a few 
miles  from  Yokohama.  The  height  of  this  great  statue  is 
nearly  50  feet,  in  circumference  it  is  97  feet.  The  length 
of  the  face  is  8 feet  5 inches,  the  width  of  mouth  3 feet 
2 inches,  and  it  has  been  asserted — though  I do  not 
guarantee  the  accuracy  of  the  calculation — that  there  are 
830  curls  upon  the  head,  each  curl  9 inches  long.  The 
statue  is  composed  of  layers  of  bronze  brazed  together. 
It  is  hollow,  and  persons  can  ascend  by  a ladder  into 
the  interior.  The  Dai  Butsu  at  Nara  is  taller  than  the 
one  at  Kamakura.  It  is  dissimilar  to  most  of  the  others 
in  the  country  in  having  a black  face  of  a somewhat 
African  type.  This  image  is  stated  to  have  been  erected 
in  the  year  750  A.D.,  and  the  head  has,  I believe,  been 
replaced  several  times.  In  the  Kamakura  Dai  Butsu 
both  hands  rest  upon  the  knees,  while  in  the  one  at  Nara 
the  right  arm  is  extended  upward  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand  placed  to  the  front.  The  statue  at  Nara  is  made  of 
bronze  which  is  stated  to  be  composed  of  gold  500, 
mercury  1,950,  tin  16,827,  and  copper  986,080  lbs.,  the  total 
weight  of  the  statue  being  about  480  tons.  Nearly  all  the 
Dai  Butsus  in  the  country  are  of  ancient  workmanship. 
There  is  a modern  one  constructed  of  wood  erected  in  the 
year  l8oo  at  Kyoto,  60  feet  high.  As  a work  of  art  it 


152 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


has,  however,  no  pretensions,  which  rest  entirely  upon 
its  size. 

Criticisms  in  regard  to  the  artistic  merits  of  these 
immense  images  have  been  numerous  and  by  no  means 
unanimous.  To  my  mind  they  are  superb  specimens  of 
the  work  of  the  old  metallurgists  of  Japan,  and  they  are, 
moreover,  deeply  interesting  as  indicative  of  the  ideas  of 
their  designers  in  regard  to  the  expression  of  placid  repose 
of  Nirvana.  Mr.  Basil  Chamberlain  has  appositely  re- 
marked in  reference  to  the  great  statue  at  Kamakura  : 
“ No  other  gives  such  an  impression  of  majesty  or  so  truly 
symbolises  the  central  idea  of  Buddhism,  the  intellectual 
calm  which  comes  of  perfected  knowledge  and  the  subjuga- 
tion of  all  passion.”  And  Lafcadio  Hearn,  that  learned 
authority  on  everything  Japanese,  who  has  brought  into 
all  his  writings  a poetical  feeling  which  breathes  the  very 
spirit  of  old  Japan,  has  observed  in  regard  to  the  same 
statue : “ The  gentleness,  the  dreamy  passionlessness  of 
those  features — the  immense  repose  of  the  whole  figure — 
are  full  of  beauty  and  charm.  And,  contrary  to  all 
expectations,  the  nearer  you  approach  the  giant  Buddha 
the  greater  the  charm  becomes.  You  look  up  into  the 
solemnly  beautiful  face — into  the  half-closed  eyes,  that 
seem  to  watch  you  through  their  eyelids  of  bronze  as 
gently  as  those  of  a child  ; and  you  feel  that  the  image 
typifies  all  that  is  tender  and  solemn  in  the  soul  of  the 
East.  Yet  you  feel  also  that  only  Japanese  thought  could 
have  created  it.  Its  beauty,  its  dignity,  its  perfect  repose, 
reflect  the  higher  life  of  the  race  that  imagined  it,  and, 
though  inspired  doubtless  by  some  Indian  model,  as  the 
treatment  of  his  hair  and  various  symbolic  marks  reveal, 
the  art  is  Japanese. 

“So  mighty  and  beautiful  is  the  work  that  you  will  for 


JAPANESE  ART 


153 


some  time  fail  to  notice  the  magnificent  lotus  plants  of 
bronze,  fully  1 5 feet  high,  planted  before  the  figure  on 
another  side  of  the  great  tripod  in  which  incense  rods  are 
burning.” 

Kaemfer,  writing  in  the  seventeenth  century,  remarked 
of  the  Japanese:  “As  to  all  sorts  of  handicraft,  they  are 
wanting  neither  proper  materials  nor  industry  and  applica- 
tion, and  so  far  is  it  that  they  should  have  any  occasion  to 
send  for  masters  abroad,  that  they  rather  exceed  all  other 
nations  in  ingenuity  and  neatness  of  workmanship,  par- 
ticularly in  brass,  gold,  silver,  and  copper.”  In  metal  work 
the  Japanese  have  certainly  cultivated  art  to  a high  degree. 
Much  of  that  metal  work  was,  of  course,  employed  in  con- 
nection with  articles  which  modern  conditions  of  life  in 
Japan  have  rendered  absolutely  or  almost  entirely  obsolete. 
The  bronze  workers  of  Japan  were  and  indeed  are  still 
famous.  Their  work  as  displayed  in  braziers,  incense- 
holders,  flower-vases,  lanterns,  and  various  other  articles 
evinces  great  skill,  while  the  effects  often  produced  by  the 
artists  in  the  inlaying  and  overlaying  of  metals  with  a view 
of  producing  a variegated  picture  has  long  been  the  wonder 
and  admiration  of  the  Western  world.  It  is  almost  safe  to 
assert  that  the  finest  specimens  of  work  of  this  kind  can 
never  be  reproduced.  In  casting,  too,  there  was  no  lack  of 
skill  in  old  Japan.  The  big  bell  at  Kyoto,  which  is 
14  feet  high  by  over  9 feet  in  diameter,  is  a sufficient 
object-lesson  as  to  the  proficiency  attained  in  casting  in 
bygone  days.  Much  of  the  bronze  work  of  Japan,  especially 
in  birds  and  insects,  is  to  me  incomparable.  The  modern 
bronze  work  of  the  country,  though  certainly  beautiful, 
does  not  in  any  respect  or  any  degree  approach  that  of  the 
masters  of  two  or  three  hundred  years  ago.  In  the  manipu- 
lation of  metals  and  amalgams  these  men  have  reached  a 


154 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


higher  standard  of  perfection  than  had  previously  or  has 
since  been  attained.  The  bronze  work  of  Japan  is  not,  in 
my  opinion,  as  generally  appreciated  as  it  deserves  to  be. 
There  is,  I think,  nothing  of  the  same  kind  in  the  world  to 
be  compared  with  it  when  it  was  at  its  best.  Like  much 
of  the  other  art  of  Japan  modern  conditions  are,  as  I have 
said,  not  conducive  either  to  its  progress  or  development. 
Still,  there  is  no  lack  of  skill  in  this  particular  branch  of 
art  in  Japan  at  the  present  time,  and  I have  seen  some 
very  admirable,  not  to  say  magnificent,  specimens  of 
modern  bronze  work. 

Armour  is  now  nearly  as  effete  in  Japan  as  in  this 
country,  and  yet  in  the  decoration  of  armour  the  Japanese 
artist  in  metal  was  in  the  past  not  only  skilful  but 
beautiful.  Fine  specimens  of  armour  are  now  extremely 
rare.  That  particular  kind  of  work  has,  of  course,  gone 
never  to  return.  Next  in  importance  to  armour  came  the 
sword.  Some  of  us  can  remember  when  the  two-sworded 
men  of  Japan  were  still  actualities,  not,  as  they  have  now 
become,  historical  entities,  the  terror  of  the  foreign  com- 
munity there.  The  sword  was  an  important  and,  indeed, 
an  essential  weapon  in  the  conditions  of  society  that 
obtained  in  old  Japan,  not  only  for  self-defence  but  for 
offensive  purposes,  either  in  respect  of  family  feuds  or 
individual  quarrels,  which  were  almost  invariably  settled 
by  the  arbitrament  of  the  sword.  That  weapon  was  also 
used  for  those  suicides  known  as  hara-kiri,  the  outcome 
of  wounded  honour  or  self-respect,  which  were  such 
prominent  features  in  the  Japanese  life  of  the  past.  Some 
Western  writers  have  attempted  to  poke  a mild  kind  of 
fun  at  this  proneness  of  the  Japanese  for  the  “happy 
despatch”  on  what  seemed  to  the  writers  very  flimsy 
or  trivial  grounds.  To  me,  on  the  contrary,  the  practice 


HKONZK  INC'KNSPMiUKNKR  AN'I)  SMAI.I,  FI.OWKR-VA.SK 

lilGHTKENTH  CKNTUKY 


JAPANESE  ART 


155 


of  hara-kiri,  indefensible  as  it  may  be  in  some  respects, 
indicates  the  existence  of  a high  code  of  honour,  the 
slightest  infringement  of  which  rendered  life  intolerable. 
The  sword  then  had  innumerable  functions,  and,  like 
almost  every  article  of  utility  in  Japan,  it  became  the 
subject  of  elaborate  ornamentation.  The  blade  itself  was 
brought  to  a high  state  of  perfection,  and  as  regards  the 
tempering  of  the  steel  has  been  the  admiration  of  cutlers 
in  every  part  of  the  globe.  Indeed  the  sword-makers  of 
Japan  are  famous  from  the  tenth  century  downwards. 
Many  of  the  sword-blades  had  mottoes  inscribed  on  them, 
and  most  had  designs  ornate  and  often  elaborate.  The 
accessories  of  the  blade  and  the  ornamentation  thereof 
lent  full  scope  for  that  artistic  adornment  which  has  for 
ages  past,  as  I have  more  than  once  remarked,  been 
characteristic  of  almost  every  article  used  in  Japan.  The 
wearing  of  the  sword  was  confined  to  persons  of  a certain 
rank,  and  different  classes  wore  different  kinds  of  swords. 
About  the  sixteenth  century  the  custom  of  wearing  two 
swords,  one  large,  the  other  about  the  size  of  a dirk,  came 
into  fashion.  The  two-handed  sword  was  essentially  a 
war  sword.  The  colour  of  the  scabbard  was  almost  in- 
variably black  with  a tinge  of  red  or  green,  and  it  was  in 
most  instances  beautifully  lacquered.  The  possessor  of  a 
sword  gave  full  vent  to  his  tastes  in  regard  to  the  size 
and  decoration  of  his  weapon.  According  to  Griffis  : 
“ Daimios  often  spent  extravagant  sums  upon  a single 
sword  and  small  fortunes  upon  a collection.  A Samurai, 
however  poor,  would  have  a blade  of  sure  temper  and  rich 
mountings,  deeming  it  honourable  to  suffer  for  food  that  he 
might  have  a worthy  emblem  of  his  rank.”  On  January  i, 
1877,  the  wearing  of  swords  was  abolished  by  an  Imperial 
decree,  and  foreigners  visiting  or  resident  in  Japan  in  that 


156 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  the  following  years  were  able  to  pick  up  magnificent 
swords  for  a few  dollars  each. 

I have  not  space  to  describe  in  detail  the  many 
accessories  which  went  to  form  the  complete  sword  for  the 
strong  man  armed  in  old  Japan,  or  the  elaborate  and 
artistic  ornamentation  of  every  detail.  In  many  of  the 
small  pieces  of  metal  work  which  adorned  the  swords  gold, 
silver,  platina,  copper,  iron,  steel,  zinc,  besides  numerous 
alloys  were  used.  The  abolition  of  sword-wearing  gave  a 
death-blow  to  the  industry  in  connection  with  the  making 
of  swords  except  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  continued  for  the 
purpose  of  turning  them  out  for  the  European  market. 
But  during  the  many  centuries  the  art  of  metal  work,  as 
exemplified  in  sword  manufacture  and  the  ornamentation 
of  the  sword  and  the  various  accessories  of  it,  existed  in 
Japan  it  reached  a magnificent  height  of  perfection. 
Dealing  only  with  one  period  of  it  a French  writer  has 
remarked:  “ What  a galaxy  of  masters  illuminated  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  ! What  a multitude  of  names 
and  works  would  have  to  be  cited  in  any  attempt  to  write 
a monograph  upon  sword  furniture!  The  humblest  artisan, 
in  this  universal  outburst  of  art,  is  superior  in  his  mastery 
of  metal  to  any  one  we  could  name  in  Europe.  How  many 
artists  worthy  of  a place  in  the  rank  are  only  known  to  us 
by  a single  piece,  but  which  is  quite  sufficient  to  evidence 
their  power!  From  1790  to  1840  art  was  at  fever  heat, 
the  creative  faculty  produced  marvels.” 

Besides  the  making  and  ornamentation  of  swords  the 
metal  workers  in  Japan  attained  great  skill  in  the  design 
and  finish  of  many  other  articles  which  were  in  constant 
use  by  the  people — pipes,  cases  to  hold  the  Indian  ink 
which  formed  the  writing  material,  the  clasps  and  buttons 
of  tobacco  pouches,  besides  vases,  &c.  In  reference  to  the 


JAPANESE  ART 


157 


making  of  alloys  these  metal  workers  showed  considerable 
ingenuity,  the  alloys  used,  amalgams  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  other  metals  in  deft  proportions,  resulting  in 
magnificent  effects  as  regards  ornamentation  and  per- 
manency. Japan  has  undoubtedly  been  greatly  aided  in 
the  height  to  which  the  art  of  the  country  of  various  kinds 
has  attained  by  the  plentifulness  of  minerals  therein. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  tin,  and  many  other  minerals 
exist.  Strange  to  say,  gold  at  one  time  was  considered  no 
more  valuable  than  silver — a fact  which  may  account  for 
the  lavish  manner  in  which  it  was  used  for  decorative 
purposes  in  art  of  all  descriptions. 

I fear  that  an  inevitable  result  of  Western  influences  and 
the  great,  indeed  drastic,  changes  which  have  been  effected 
thereby  in  the  ideas,  manners,  and  customs  of  the  Japanese 
people  has  been  the  decay,  if  not  the  destruction,  of  the 
art  connected  with  metal  work.  Sword  manufacture  and 
everything  relating  thereto  is,  of  course,  gone;  other  metal 
industries  are  following  suit.  The  result,  as  I have  said, 
was  inevitable,  but  it  is  none  the  less  deplorable.  Although 
it  requires  an  expert  to  deal  with  and  describe  in  all  its 
infinite  detail  the  metal  work  of  Japan,  it  does  not  need 
an  expert’s  knowledge  to  profoundly  admire  it  and  be  lost 
in  admiration  at  the  skill  displayed  and  the  pains  taken  in 
respect  of  every  part  of  it.  The  workers  in  this,  as  indeed 
in  all  the  other  art  industries  of  Japan  in  the  past,  were 
quite  evidently  not  men  in  a hurry  or  much  exercised 
concerning  their  output,  and  scamping  their  work  in  order 
to  establish  a record.  Their  hearts  must  have  been  in 
everything  they  undertook,  and  their  sole  aim,  whatever 
they  did,  to  put  into  their  work  all  their  skill  and  know- 
ledge and  love  of  the  beautiful.  They,  in  fact,  worked  not 
for  pelf  but  for  sheer  love  of  art,  and  so  long  as  the  work 


158 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  these  artists  of  various  kinds  endures  the  world  will 
assuredly  never  cease  to  admire  it. 

Painting  has,  in  Japan,  long  been  greatly  cultivated,  and 
in  some  respects  highly  developed.  There  are  various 
recognised  schools  of  painting,  but  I shall  not  weary  my 
readers  with  any  attempt,  necessarily  imperfect  as  it  would 
be,  to  describe  them  in  detail.  China  and  the  Buddhist 
religion  have  profoundly  influenced  painting  as  the  other 
arts  of  Japan.  Indeed,  the  early  painters  of  Japan  devoted 
themselves  almost  entirely  to  religious  subjects.  Most  of 
their  work  was  executed  on  the  walls,  ceilings,  and  sliding 
screens  of  the  Buddhist  temples,  but  some  of  it  still  exists 
in  kakemonos,  or  wall  pictures,  and  makimonos,  or  scroll 
pictures.  In  the  ninth  century  painting,  as  well  as  the  arts 
of  architecture  and  carving,  flourished  exceedingly.  Kyoto 
appears  to  have  been  the  great  artistic  centre.  The 
construction  of  temples  throughout  the  country  proceeded 
apace,  and  it  is  related  that  no  less  than  13,000  images 
were  carved  and  painted  during  the  reign  of  one  emperor. 
Kyoto  was,  in  fact,  the  centre  of  religious  art.  We  are 
told  that  the  entire  city  was  in  a constant  artistic  ferment, 
that  whole  streets  were  converted  into  studios  and  work- 
shops, and  that  the  population  of  idols  and  images  was 
as  numerous  as  the  human  habitation.  Nearly  all  the 
temples  then  constructed  and  adorned  have  vanished,  but 
that  at  Shiba  still  remains  to  convey  to  us  some  idea  of 
the  artistic  glories  of  this  period  of  intense  religious  belief, 
which  gave  expression  to  its  fervour  and  its  faith  in 
architecture,  carving,  and  painting.  About  the  thirteenth 
century  flower  and  still-life  painting  came  into  vogue. 
Almost  simultaneously  religious  fervour,  as  expressed  in 
art,  began  to  grow  cold.  The  artist  became  the  hanger-on 
of  the  Daimio,  who  was  too  often  employed  in  burning 


JAPANESE  ART 


159 


temples  and  destroying  their  artistic  treasures.  The 
painter  then  painted  as  his  fancy  led  him,  and  if  he  treated 
of  religious  subjects  did  not  invariably  do  so  in  a reverential 
spirit.  From  time  to  time  new  schools  of  painting  arose, 
culminating,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  in  the  Shijo  school, 
which  made  a feature  of  painting  animals,  birds,  fishes, 
flowers,  &c.,  from  nature,  instead  of  adhering  to  the 
conventional  style  which  had  previously  prevailed.  The 
colouring  of  some  of  the  work  of  this  school  is  superb  and 
is  greatly  in  request  among  art  collectors. 

Of  late  years  painting  in  Japan  seems,  to  some  extent, 
to  have  come  under  Western  influences.  There  is,  indeed, 
a progressive  party  in  painting  which  not  only  does  not 
resist  these  Western  influences  but  actually  advocates  the 
utilisation  of  Western  materials  and  methods  in  painting 
and  the  discarding  of  all  that  had  made  Japanese  painting 
essentially  what  it  is.  I confess  to  a hope  that  this 
progressive  school  will  not  make  quite  so  much  progress 
as  its  disciples  desire.  To  introduce  European  pigments, 
canvas,  brushes,  &c.,  and  discard  the  materials  formerly  in 
use,  to  get  rid  of  the  Japanese  method  of  treating  subjects, 
whether  landscapes,  country  scenes,  the  life  of  the  people, 
representations  of  animals,  and  so  on,  and  replace  that 
method  by  imitations  of  European  schools  of  painting, 
must  simply  involve  the  destruction  of  all  that  is  essentially 
and  characteristically  Japanese  and  the  replacing  of  it  by 
something  that  is  not  Japanese  or  indeed  Oriental.  The 
essence  of  art  is  originality.  I admit  that  art  may  come 
under  foreign  influences  and  be  improved,  just  as  it  may 
be  degraded,  by  them.  If  the  influences  of  foreign  art  are 
to  be  advantageous  that  art  must,  I suggest,  be  in  some 
measure  akin  to  the  style  of  the  art  which  is  affected  by  it. 
For  example,  the  influence  in  the  past  of  China  or  Korea 


160 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


upon  an  analogous  style  of  art  in  Japan.  But  for  Japanese 
painters  to  remodel  their  peculiar  style  upon  that  of 
Europe  must  prove  as  fatal  to  Japanese  painting  as  an  art 
as  any  similar  endeavour  of  European  painters  to  remodel 
their  style  upon  that  of  Japan  would  be  fatal  to  the 
distinctive  art  of  Europe.  I make  this  statement  with 
full  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  some  art  critics  in  this 
country  declare  that  Mr.  Whistler  and  other  artists  have 
been  largely  affected  or  influenced  in  their  style  by  a study 
of  Japanese  art  in  painting  and  its  methods. 

I have  referred  to  kakemonos,  those  wall  pictures  which 
are  such  a pleasing  feature  of  the  simple  decoration  of 
Japanese  houses.  Many  of  these  are  superb  specimens  of 
art,  and  the  same  remark  may  be  made  in  reference  to  the 
makimonos,  or  scroll  pictures.  It  may  be  that  not  every 
Western  eye  can  appreciate  these  Japanese  paintings  fully 
at  a first  glance,  but  they  certainly  grow  upon  one,  and  I 
hope  the  time  is  far  distant  when  kakemonos  will  be 
replaced  in  Japanese  homes  by  those  mural  decorations,  if 
I may  so  term  them,  to  be  seen  in  so  many  English 
houses,  which  are  a positive  eyesore  to  any  person  with 
even  the  faintest  conception  of  art.  The  work  of  the  old 
painters  of  Japan,  as  it  appears  on  kakemonos  and 
makimonos,  is  now  rare.  Much  of  it,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  other  art  treasures  of  the  country,  has  gone  abroad. 
I am,  however,  of  opinion  that  painting  has  not  deteriorated 
to  anything  like  the  same  extent  as  some  of  the  other 
Japanese  arts.  The  subjects  depicted  by  the  artists  have 
during  the  centuries  from  time  to  time  changed,  but  the 
technique  has  altered  but  little.  It  does  not,  I know, 
appeal  to  everybody,  but  it  is  the  kind  of  art,  I reiterate, 
that  grows  upon  one.  No  person  who  has  interested 
himself  in  painting  in  modern  Japan,  especially  on  kake- 


KAKEMONO  ON  PAPER 


KAKEMONO  ON  PAPER 


ATTRieCTED  TO  MATAHEI 


ATTRIBUTED  TO  SHIMMAN,  UKIVO  SCHOOL. 
EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


JAPANESE  ART 


161 


monos,  can,  I think,  have  failed  to  be  impressed  by  the 
exquisite  and  beautiful  work  which  the  Japanese  artists 
in  colour  to-day  produce. 

Silk  and  satin  embroidery  as  an  industry  and  an  art  at 
one  time  attained  considerable  importance  in  Japan,  but 
of  recent  years  has  greatly  declined.  The  craze  among 
the  upper  classes  for  European  dress  has,  of  course, 
seriously  affected  the  demand  for  elaborately  embroidered 
silk  and  satin  garments,  and  is  bound  to  affect  it  to  an 
even  greater  extent  in  the  future  as  the  custom  of  wearing 
European  garb  spreads  among  the  people.  No  one  with 
any  artistic  sensibilities  can  help  regretting  the  fact  that 
Japan  is  gradually  but  surely  discarding  the  distinctive 
costume  of  her  people.  That  costume  was  in  every 
respect  appropriate  to  their  physique  and  facial  character- 
istics. The  same  certainly  cannot  be  said  of  European 
attire.  However,  it  is  now,  I suppose,  hopeless  to  arrest 
the  movement  in  this  direction,  and  in  a comparatively 
few  years,  no  doubt,  the  ancient  and  historic  dress  of  the 
Japanese  people  will  be  as  obsolete  as  the  silks,  satins, 
ruffles,  &c.,  of  our  forefathers. 

And  what  remark  shall  I make  of  Japanese  curios,  the 
trade  in  which  has  assumed  such  very  large  dimensions  ? 
Have  they  no  claim,  some  of  my  readers  may  ask,  to  be 
included  in  a chapter  on  art?  There  is  no  doubt  that 
many  purchasers  of  them  would  be  shocked  were  they  to 
be  told  that  there  was  nothing  artistic  in  many,  if  not 
most,  of  these  articles,  that  they  were  made  simply  and 
solely  for  the  European  market,  and  that  the  manufacture 
of  curios  for  this  purpose  was  now  just  as  much  a trade  as 
is  the  making  of  screws  in  Birmingham.  I am  quite 
prepared  to  admit  that  some  of  the  articles  included  in  the 
generic  term  “ curios,”  which  can  now  be  purchased  in  every 

M 


162 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


large  town  in  Great  Britain,  are  pretty  and  effective,  but  as 
regards  many  of  them  there  is  certainly  nothing  artistic  or 
indeed  particularly  or  peculiarly  Japanese.  This  making 
of  curios  for  the  foreign  market  has,  as  I have  said, 
assumed  considerable  dimensions  in  Japan  of  recent  years, 
and  in  connection  therewith  the  Japanese  has  certainly 
assimilated  many  Western  ideas  in  reference  to  pushing 
his  wares.  As  an  example  in  point  of  this  I will  quote 
here  an  anecdote  told  me  by  a friend  who  had  a consider- 
able knowledge  of  Japan  in  the  ’seventies.  During  one 
of  his  journeyings  inland,  when  staying  at  a Japanese 
tea-house,  he  was  initiated  into  the  use  of  Japanese 
tooth-powder,  which  is  in  pretty  general  use  among  the 
lower  classes.  On  leaving  Japan  he  purchased  and 
brought  to  England  a considerable  quantity  of  this  tooth- 
powder,  and  on  settling  down  in  London  he  discovered  a 
Japanese  shop  where  it  was  on  sale.  For  some  seventeen 
or  eighteen  years  he  purchased  the  tooth-powder  at  the 
shop,  sold  in  the  little  boxes  in  which  it  was  vended  in 
Japan,  not  only  using  it  himself  but  introducing  it  to  a 
large  number  of  his  acquaintances.  One  day  last  year, 
on  going  into  the  shop  referred  to  to  make  a further 
purchase,  he  was  informed  that  they  were  run  out  of 
tooth-powder  and  did  not  quite  know  if  they  would  have 
any  more.  My  friend  returned  a month  or  two  later  to 
the  same  shop  on  the  same  errand  bent,  and  asked  if  they 
had  received  a fresh  supply.  He  was  told  that  a further 
supply  had  come  to  hand  of  very  much  the  same  descrip- 
tion, but  at  double  the  price.  He  purchased  a box,  the 
outside  of  which  bore  the  following  inscription  in  English : 
“ Japanese  Sanitary  Dentifrice  ; Superior  Quality.  Apply 
the  powder  to  the  teeth  by  means  of  a brush,  using 
moderate  friction  over  the  whole  surface.”  On  opening 


JAPANESE  ART 


163 


the  box  my  friend  found  the  powder  was  perfumed — 
perfumed  for  the  European  market!  Now  tooth-powder 
is,  of  course,  not  a curio,  nor  is  the  expression  “ moderate 
friction  over  the  whole  surface,”  I may  remark,  character- 
istically Japanese.  The  little  anecdote  is,  I think,  typical 
of  the  change  that  has  come  over  and  is  still  actively  in 
progress  in  Japan — a change  which,  however  inevitable, 
and  beneficial  though  in  many  respects  I believe  it  to  be, 
is  most  assuredly  not  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  art  of 
any  kind. 

The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that  the  hurry-scurry  of 
modern  civilisation  is  not  conducive  to  artistic  work  of 
any  description.  The  man  in  a hurry  is  unlikely  to 
accomplish  anything  of  permanent  value.  Working 
against  time  is  utterly  subversive  of  the  realisation  of 
artistic  ideals.  The  past,  whether  in  the  West  or  the 
East,  when  railways,  telegraphs,  telephones,  newspapers, 
and  all  the  adjuncts  of  modern  progress  were  unknown, 
was  the  period  when  men  did  good  and  enduring  work. 
They  could  then  concentrate  their  minds  upon  their  art 
free  from  those  hundred-and-one  discomposing  and  dis- 
concerting influences  which  are  the  concomitants  of 
modern  civilisation.  The  true  artist  thinks  only  of  his 
art ; for  him  it  is  not  merely  a predominant,  but  his  sole 
interest.  He  brings  to  it  all  his  mind,  his  ideas  and  ideals, 
his  energy,  enthusiasm,  pertinacity ; in  it  is  concentrated 
all  his  ambition.  Extraneous  matters  can  only  distract 
his  mind  from  his  art,  and  accordingly  are  to  be  abjured. 
I fear  this  exclusiveness,  this  aloofness,  is  rare  nowadays  in 
the  West ; it  is  perhaps  less  rare  in  the  East,  but  it  is  be- 
coming rarer  there  as  Western  influences.  Western  ideas, 
and  Western  modes  of  life  and  method  of  regarding  life 
make  progress.  The  poet,  the  painter,  the  sculptor,  the 


164 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


novelist,  the  dramatist,  if  their  work  is  to  be  other  than 
ephemeral,  need  an  atmosphere  of  repose  and  quietude 
wherein  the  mind  can  work  and  fashion  those  ideas  which 
are  to  be  given  material  expression  free  from  all  distracting 
and  disturbing  influences.  Where  can  the  aspiring  artist, 
under  modern  conditions  of  life,  find  such  a haven  of  rest  ? 
And  even  if  he  find  it  I fear  he  too  often  has  no  desire  to 
cast  anchor  there.  The  distractions  of  life  are  frequently 
alluring,  and  the  embryonic  artists  of  to-day  assure  us 
that  they  must,  in  modern  jargon,  keep  “ in  touch  ” with 
modern  thought  with  a view  of,  in  modern  slang,  being 
“ up-to-date.”  Ideas  such  as  these — and  they  seem  to  me 
to  be  not  only  largely  prevalent  but  almost  universal — are 
in  my  opinion  fatal,  not  only  to  the  development  but  to 
the  very  existence  of  art.  We  see  in  this  country  the 
effect  upon  every  department  thereof.  Poetry,  painting, 
sculpture,  literature,  the  drama,  are  by  almost  general 
consent  in  a state  of  utter  decadence.  The  great  poet  or 
painter,  the  great  artist  in  words,  on  canvas,  in  marble,  or 
in  wood — where  is  he  ? Are  there  any  signs  or  portents  of 
his  advent?  None.  Modern  conditions  of  life  have  killed 
the  artist,  and  replaced  him  by  artistic  mediocrities  or 
mechanicians  who  labour  not  for  love  but  for  lucre,  and 
are  more  concerned  about  the  amount  of  their  output 
than  the  quality  thereof.  And  as  of  England  and  Europe 
so  I fear  is  it,  and  will  it  be  to  a greater  extent,  in  the  near 
future  in  Japan.  The  artist  in  lacquer,  porcelain,  metal, 
painting,  embroidery,  cannot  exist  under  the  conditions  of 
modern  progress.  He  may  still  produce  good  and  beautiful 
work,  but  it  will  be  no  longer  artistic  in  the  higher  sense 
of  that  word,  just  because  those  ideas  and  ideals  which 
make  the  artist  and  connote  art  cannot  exist  in  their 
fulness  and  purity  amidst  the  hurry  and  bustle  and 


JAPANESE  ART 


165 


turmoil  and  desire  for  wealth  which  are  the  essential 
characteristics  of  the  civilisation  of  Europe  and  America 
to-day — a civilisation  which  Japan  has  imported,  and  to 
a large  degree  assimilated,  and  which  she  must  accept 
with  its  defects  as  well  as  its  advantages.  We  may,  and 
must,  regret  the  effect  of  this  civilisation  upon  the  art  of 
old  Japan,  but  there  is  no  good  shutting  one’s  eyes  to 
obvious  facts  or  affecting  to  believe  that  in  due  course  we 
shall  witness  a renaissance  in  Japan,  a new  birth  of  all 
that  is  great  and  grand  and  magnificent  in  her  past 
history. 

There  has  for  some  years  been  a movement  to  prevent, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  passing  out  of  Japan  of  its  art 
treasures.  The  Government  has  diligently  catalogued  all 
that  remain  in  the  temples  and  public  buildings  to  obviate 
their  being  sold,  and  museums  have  been  built  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  and  exhibiting  all  that  is  best  and 
representative  of  Japanese  art.  There  has  also  been  a 
movement  among  the  noblemen  and  the  upper  classes  in 
the  direction  of  forming  private  collections.  It  was  time 
that  steps  such  as  these  should  be  taken.  It  is  a thousand 
pities  they  were  not  taken  earlier.  The  drain  of  Japan’s 
art  treasures  went  on  unchecked  year  after  year,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  private  and  public  collections  of  Europe 
and  America  contain  more  Japanese  art  treasures  than  are 
now  to  be  found  in  Japan  itself.  I am  aware  that  in  these 
collections  are  also  to  be  found  no  little  of  the  spurious, 
and  many  articles  with  no  claim  to  be  considered  artistic 
in  any  sense  of  the  word,  but  at  the  same  time  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  as  I have  said,  for  years,  there  was  a constant 
export  of  artistic  wealth  from  Japan.  The  Revolution  of 
1868,  with  its  consequent  cataclysms,  caused  the  treasures 
of  many  of  the  great  families  to  come  on  the  market,  with 


166 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  result  that  they  were  bought  up  at  prices  often  greatly 
below  their  intrinsic  value  and  shipped  from  the  country. 
They  are  of  course  gone  for  ever,  and  the  only  thing  that 
now  remains  to  Japan  is  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible  any 
of  the  treasures  which  she  possesses  meeting  with  a similar 
fate.  I know  perfectly  well  that  art,  like  music,  knows 
nothing  of  nationality,  and  that  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
resident  of  London  or  New  York  should  not  enjoy  the 
beauties  of  Japanese  art,  and  feast  his  eyes  on  the  work  of 
some  great  Japanese  artist  of  three  or  four  hundred  years 
back  just  as  much  as  the  citizen  of  Tokio.  This  is  in  one 
sense  true,  but  at  the  same  time  one  cannot  help  sym- 
pathising with  the  patriotic  desire  of  a people  to  retain  in 
their  midst  specimens  of  the  artistic  conceptions  and  the 
artistic  work  of  those  famous  men  who  are  now  ashes,  but 
whose  work  remains  as  a symbol  and  an  incentive  to  their 
countrymen  to  maintain  a high  standard,  and  to  practise 
art  simply  and  solely  for  the  love  of  it. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE 


HERE  are,  perhaps,  some  superior  persons  who  may 


consider  that  Japanese  architecture  has  no  claim 
to  be  regarded  as  art.  These  persons  have  no  conception 
of  art  in  architecture  unless  it  be  Doric,  Gothic,  Byzantine, 
Early  English,  or  something  of  the  kind,  and  unless  it  be 
expressed  in  bricks  and  mortar.  Now  Japanese  architec- 
ture is  only  wood,  but  though  only  wood,  as  regards  its 
majestic  beauty,  seemliness,  and  adaptability  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  intended,  it  stands  unique.  More- 
over, it  is  the  only  timber  architecture  in  the  world  that 
has  attained  in  any  degree  artistic  importance.  Almost 
every  building  in  Japan  is,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately, 
was,  constructed  of  wood — a fact  possibly  due  to  the  inter- 
minable earthquakes  to  which  the  country  was  long,  and  is 
still  occasionally,  subjected.  In  Japanese  architecture  no 
brick  or  stone  is  used  unless  it  be  for  foundations ; never- 
theless, this  restriction  to  wood  material  has  not  prevented 
the  Japanese  architects  of  the  past  raising  stupendous 
structures  which  in  beauty  of  adornment  and  durability 
have  long  been  the  admiration  of  the  Western  world. 
The  Temple  of  Nara,  for  example,  was  constructed  three 
hundred  years  before  the  foundations  of  Westminster 


167 


168 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Abbey  were  laid.  As  Dr.  Dresser  has  pertinently  re- 
marked in  this  connection  : “ What  buildings  can  we  show 
in  England  which  have  existed  since  the  eighth  century 
and  are  yet  almost  as  perfect  as  when  first  built  ? and  yet 
our  buildings  rest  on  a solid  foundation,  and  not  on  earth 
which  is  constantly  rocked  by  natural  convulsions."  The 
porch  of  the  temple  of  Todaji  is  erected  upon  pillars 
lOO  feet  high  by  12  feet  in  circumference,  and  yet  this 
porch  is  merely  the  entrance  to  another  porch  equally 
large,  which  again  is  itself  the  approach  to  the  temple 
containing  an  image  of  Buddha  53  feet  high  with  a halo 
83  feet  in  diameter.  The  sanctuary  of  the  ancient 
temple  at  Nara,  already  referred  to,  has  columns  quite 
100  feet  high  consisting  of  a single  stem.  These  ancient 
fanes  are  not  bald  architectural  ruins.  Their  decoration, 
as  ancient  as  the  building  itself,  is  quite  as  permanent. 
They  are  ablaze  in  every  part  with  majestic  decorations 
in  gold  and  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  as  gorgeous 
and  impressive  now  as  they  were  when  first  applied  by 
the  hands  of  the  decorators  more  than  a thousand  years 
ago.  As  a recent  writer  on  this  subject  has  appositely 
remarked : “ It  is  in  detail  the  Japanese  architect  most 
excels,  for  if  he  conceives  like  a giant  he  invariably 
finishes  like  a jeweller.  Every  detail  to  the  very  nails, 
which  are  not  dull  surfaces  but  rendered  exquisite 
ornaments,  is  a work  of  art.  Everywhere  we  encounter 
friezes  and  carvings  in  relief,  representing  in  quaint 
colour  harmonies  flowers  and  birds,  or  heavenly  spirits 
playing  upon  flutes  and  stringed  instruments.” 

It  must  often  strike  the  thinking  man  as  a curious  fact 
that  these  old  religious  edifices,  whether  in  Europe  or  the 
Far  East,  seem  to  have  a permanence  about  them  such  as 
is  not  characteristic  of  modern  buildings  of  the  same  kind. 


JAPANESE  AECHITECTURE 


169 


The  reason,  I think,  must  have  been  that  the  men  who 
were  employed  in  the  designing  and  construction  of  these 
ancient  buildings,  whether  in  the  East  or  West,  were  not 
mere  mercenaries  employed  for  a particular  purpose,  but 
men  full  of  faith  in  their  religion,  a building  in  whose 
honour  and  for  whose  services  they  were  employed  to 
erect,  and  who  threw  into  their  work  their  whole  souls, 
so  to  speak — gave,  in  fact,  the  best  of  what  they  had,  and 
employed  all  their  zeal,  energy,  and  enthusiasm  with  a 
view  of  perpetuating,  whether  in  stone,  brick,  or  wood,  the 
faith  they  so  firmly  held  and  so  dearly  loved. 

Some  of  the  problems  that  the  Japanese  builders  of  the 
past  had  to  face  in  the  erection  of  a few  of  the  great 
temples  which  still  adorn  the  country  have  proved  in- 
soluble to  many  European  engineers  and  architects.  The 
erection  and  support  of  the  magnificent  pagoda  at  Nikko 
is  an  example  in  point.  Dr.  Dresser  has  referred  to  this 
and  pointed  out  what  he  deemed  a great  waste  of  material 
in  connection  therewith.  He  failed  to  understand  for  what 
reason  an  enormous  log  of  wood  ascended  in  the  centre  of 
a structure  from  its  base  to  the  apex — a log  of  wood  about 
2 feet  in  diameter — while  near  the  lower  end  one  equally 
large  was  bolted  to  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the  central 
mass.  When  Dr.  Dresser  expressed  surprise  on  the  subject 
he  was  told  that  the  walls  must  be  strong  enough  to 
support  the  central  block  ; and  on  his  pointing  out  that 
the  central  block  was  not  supported  by  the  sides,  he  was 
taken  up  to  the  top  of  the  building  and  the  fact  demon- 
strated to  him  that  the  huge  central  mass  was  suspended 
like  the  clapper  of  a bell.  On  descending  again,  while 
lying  on  the  ground,  he  saw  that  there  was  quite  an  inch 
of  space  between  the  soil  and  the  great  pendulum — a safe- 
guard against  damage  by  earthquake.  For  many  hundreds 


170 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  years  the  centre  of  gravity  of  this  building  has,  by  its 
swinging,  been  kept  within  the  base,  and  the  fact  shows, 
were  evidence  needed,  that  the  Japanese  architects  who 
designed  this  great  Nikko  Pagoda  and  similar  structures 
were  men  of  scientific  capacities  who  had  thought  out 
every  problem  connected  with  the  safety  and  permanence 
of  the  building  they  were  employed  to  design. 

The  domestic  dwellings  of  the  great  mass  of  the 
Japanese  people  are  of  the  simplest  possible  type.  They 
are  no  doubt  evolved  from  the  hut  of  the  Ainos,  probably 
the  aborigines  of  the  islands,  still  to  be  found  in  the  island 
of  Yesso.  There  are  no  walls  as  we  understand  the  term, 
the  sides  being  composed,  in  winter,  of  amado,  or  sliding 
screens  made  of  wood,  and  in  summer  of  shoji,  or  oil-paper 
slides.  This  enables,  in  hot  weather,  the  whole  of  the 
side  of  the  house  to  be  moved,  and  the  air  to  be  given  free 
ingress  and  egress.  Nor  are  these  habitations  divided  off 
into  permanent  rooms,  as  in  this  and  other  European 
countries.  Paper  screens  which  slide  into  grooves  divide 
the  space  according  to  requirements.  The  wood-work  of 
these  dwellings,  which  are  largely  composed  of  camphor- 
wood,  is  both  within  and  without  left  unpainted,  and  they 
generally  present  a neat  and  alluring  appearance.  When 
one  compares  the  dwelling-places  of  the  poorest  inhabi- 
tants of  Japan  with  the  hovels  in  this  country,  and  more 
especially  in  Ireland,  occupied  by  the  peasants,  one  is 
really  lost  in  wonder  at  the  ignorance  of  those  persons 
who  call  Japan,  and  no  doubt  still  believe  it  to  have 
been,  an  uncivilised  country  until  it  was  brought  inti- 
mately into  association  with  Occidental  nations. 

As  we  ascend  in  the  social  scale  in  Japan  we  find,  of 
course,  a difference  in  architecture.  The  principle  remains 
very  much  the  same,  but,  as  might  be  expected,  the  build- 


TKA  HOUSE,  NEAR  TOKIO 


JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE 


171 


ings  are  more  elaborate  and  there  is  a wealth  of  ornamen- 
tation which  is  absent  from  those  of  the  lower  classes. 
I am  inclined  to  think  that  what  I may  call  ecclesiastical 
art  has  largely  influenced  the  decoration  of  the  houses  of 
the  nobles  and  upper  classes  in  Japan.  Many  of  the  old 
feudal  castles,  which  were  gems  of  Japanese  architecture, 
no  longer  exist,  but  some  of  those  which  still  remain  are 
exceedingly  beautiful  specimens  of  wooden  architecture. 
The  castle  of  Nagoya,  built  in  the  early  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  is  supposed  to  be  the  finest  specimen  of 
the  kind  in  Japan. 

But  the  Japanese  never  seems  to  have  been  overmuch 
concerned  respecting  his  dwelling.  To  comprehend  the 
beauty  of  Japanese  architecture,  to  see  it  in  its  purity  and 
to  realise  all  the  grandeur  that  can  be  crowded  into  it,  it  is 
necessary  to  study  it  in  the  religious  edifices  of  the  country. 
Plainness  is  the  characteristic  of  the  Shinto  temple  ; built 
as  a rule  of  pine,  it  has  a thatched  roof.  The  fact  of  its 
being  an  edifice  of  the  Shinto  religion  is  self-evident  from 
the  torii  which  stand  before  every  Shinto  temple.  There 
are  no  idols  or  exterior  ornamentation  of  any  kind.  The 
walls  are  left  untouched  by  either  the  painter  or  the 
lacquerer.  In  the  Buddhist  temples,  on  the  contrary, 
the  Japanese  artist  has  had  afforded  him  full  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  his  ornamental  ingenuity.  Numerous  court- 
yards have  to  be  traversed  before  reaching  the  temple 
itself  These  courtyards  contain  many  small  buildings, 
bronze  or  stone  lanterns,  belfries,  pavilions,  pagodas, 
&c.,  &c.,  all  elaborately  decorated.  Amongst  the  supple- 
mentary buildings  connected  with,  but  occasionally  inde- 
pendent of,  Buddhist  temples,  none  is  more  interesting 
than  the  pagoda  so  intimately  associated  with  Buddhism 
in  every  part  of  the  Far  East  and  so  typically  Oriental 


172 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


in  its  architecture.  What  may  have  been  the  precise 
origin  of  these  five-  or  seven-storied  erections,  for  what 
purpose  they  were  intended,  or  what  symbolism,  if  any, 
they  were  the  expression  of,  is  now  largely  a matter  of 
conjecture.  No  one  who  has  visited  the  East  can  at  any 
rate  have  failed  to  be  impressed  by  them.  In  Japan 
where,  save  the  lower  storey,  the  whole  is  lacquered  red, 
they  are  a striking  feature  of  the  country.  The  lower 
storey,  by  the  way,  is  decorated  with  numerous  painted 
carvings.  Topping  the  whole  building  is  the  twisted  spire 
of  bronze. 

Like  most  other  things  in  Japan,  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  architecture  of  the  country  is  lost  in  the 
twilight  of  obscurity.  Korea  appears  to  have  influenced 
Japanese  architecture,  just  as  it  has  Japanese  art  of  various 
kinds.  It  is  an  extraordinary  fact  that  this  portion  of 
Asia  contiguous  to  the  Japanese  islands,  which  has  for  so 
many  hundreds  of  years  past  exercised  such  a subtle 
influence  on  the  art  and  industries  of  Japan,  should  at  the 
commencement  of  the  twentieth  century  have  passed 
under  the  suzerainty  of  that  country.  When  one  fully 
comprehends  the  connection  in  various  ways  of  Korea 
with  Japan  in  all  the  past  centuries,  one  begins  to  under- 
stand the  sentimental  feeling  which  has  influenced  the 
whole  nation  in  regard  to  the  possibility  of  Korea  passing 
under  the  domination  of  any  other  Power.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century  Korea  was  invaded  by  Japan 
and,  although  the  country  was  then  conquered,  it,  as  has 
not  infrequently  under  similar  circumstances  happened  in 
history,  exercised  a potent  effect  on  both  the  art  and 
architecture  of  Japan.  Korean  architecture,  of  course, 
was  not  original  ; it  was  based  on  that  of  China,  which  in 
its  turn  came  from  Burmah,  and  that  again  probably 


JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE 


173 


from  India.  In  the  course  of  the  seventh  century,  how- 
ever, the  imported  architecture  more  or  less  assumed  the 
general  style  which  has  since  remained  distinctly  Japanese 
and  although  it  undoubtedly  embodies  everything  that 
was  best  in  the  architecture  of  the  countries  from  which  it 
derived  its  essential  features,  appears  to  me  to  have  an 
originality  of  its  own.  No  man  who  has  not  visited  the 
great  temples  at  Shiba  and  Nikko  can  understand  to  what 
heights  of  sublimity  wooden  architecture  can  rise,  what  a 
gorgeous  tout  ensemble  can  be  accomplished  by  harmonious 
colour  schemes  deftly  blended  by  artists  who  had  made  a 
study  of  colour  and  all  the  details  connected  therewith, 
and  knew  how  to  render  a picturesque  effect  which  should 
be  imposing  without  being  either  gaudy  or  glaring. 

I am  afraid  that  the  results  of  Western  civilisation  have 
been,  and  will  continue  to  be,  fatal  to  Japanese  architects. 
Judging  by  the  buildings  which  have  been  erected  in  the 
country  since  Western  influences  have  reigned  supreme 
Japanese  architecture  is  not  only  dead  but  buried.  These 
edifices — hotels,  Government  buildings,  railway  stations 
and  so  on,  are  an  attempt  to  combine  Western  and 
Japanese  styles.  The  result  is  an  incongruity,  to  ex- 
press it  mildly,  sufficient  to  cause  the  artistic  mind  to 
shudder.  The  men  who  built  the  temples  at  Shiba,  at 
Nikko,  and  in  various  other  parts  of  the  country,  and 
the  pagodas  which  dot  the  land,  are  dead,  and  have 
left  no  successors.  There  is  nothing,  in  my  opinion,  that 
is  more  likely  to  be  influenced,  and  more  injuriously  influ- 
enced, by  Western  ideas  than  the  architecture  of  Japan. 
There  is  a tendency  in  the  country  to  erect  European 
buildings,  and  I suppose  it  is  one  that  it  is  impossible  to 
complain  of.  The  Japanese  houses,  although  they  have 
advantages  in  the  summer-time,  are  undoubtedly  not  well 


174 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


fitted  to  withstand  the  rigours  of  winter ; and  I have  no 
doubt  that,  from  the  standpoint  of  material  comfort,  a 
replacement  of  them  by  buildings  erected  on  European 
lines  might  be  an  advantage.  But  from  the  artistic  point 
of  view  such  a change  is  one  impossible  to  contemplate 
without  a feeling  of  regret. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  human  possibility  of  temples 
such  as  those  at  Shiba  and  Nikko  ever  again  being  erected 
in  Japan.  As  I have  previously  remarked,  buildings  such 
as  these  are  something  more  than  mere  material  con- 
structions ; they  are  the  embodiment  in  material  form  of 
a living  faith  which  the  designers  and  builders  attempted 
to  set  forth  in  their  work.  An  age  of  disbelief,  of 
indifference,  of  agnosticism,  is  not  conducive  to  the  con- 
struction of  such  edifices.  We  need  not  go  to  Japan  for 
evidence  of  that  obvious  fact.  The  hideous  monstrosities 
in  the  shape  of  cathedrals,  churches,  and  chapels  that  have 
been  built  in  this  country  during  the  past  century  or  two 
are  abundant  proof,  were  any  needed,  that  the  faith  and 
piety  whose  outward  and  visible  manifestation  is  to  be 
seen  in  Westminster  Abbey,  Canterbury  Cathedral,  York 
Minster,  and  various  other  noble  architectural  fanes  is  no 
longer  with  us ; it  has  gone,  and,  apparently,  inspiration 
with  it.  We  can  now  only  construct  walls,  and  put  roofs 
on  them — admirable  edifices,  no  doubt,  to  keep  out  the 
rain,  but  signifying  nothing  from  an  artistic  or  idealistic 
point  of  view.  And  so  it  is  in  regard  to  Japan.  Archi- 
tecture there,  considered  as  an  art,  is  dead.  It  may  be 
imitated  or  reproduced,  but  the  reproduction  will  impose 
on  no  person  of  artistic  sensibilities  or  knowledge,  any 
more  than  a Sheraton  reproduction  hailing  from  the 
Tottenham  Court  Road  would  impose  on  a connoisseur 
as  the  genuine  work  of  that  great  artist  in  furniture. 


JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE 


175 


The  art  of  Japan  has,  especially  since  the  opening  up 
of  the  country,  been  closely  studied  and  investigated,  and 
many  learned  tomes  have  been  written  concerning  it.  I do 
not,  however,  think  that  the  art  of  the  country  as  expressed 
in  its  architecture  has  received  anything  like  the  attention 
it  deserves.  This  may  possibly  arise  from  the  fact,  to 
which  I have  already  referred,  that  many  people  have 
what  I may  term  a restricted  definition  or  conception  of 
art.  Others  there  are,  again,  who  consider  wooden  archi- 
tecture to  be  almost  a contradiction  in  terms.  Words  or 
definitions  in  a matter  of  this  kind  seem  to  me  to  be 
childish.  The  lover  of  the  beautiful,  the  admirer  of  the 
historic,  the  investigator  of  the  ebb  and  flow  of  religious 
systems  and  of  the  sentiments  and  spirit  that  have 
influenced  and  moulded  them  at  different  periods  of  their 
existence,  can  in  the  ancient  wooden  temples  of  Japan 
find  abundant  material  for  enjoyment,  instruction,  reflec- 
tion. I have  no  hesitation  in  including  these  buildings  in 
that  surely  expansive  and  comprehensive  term.  Art. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


POSTAL  AND  OTHER  MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 


HE  advancement  of  a nation,  may,  I think,  be 


accurately  gauged  by  the  facilities  it  possesses  or 
has  developed  for  the  communication  of  its  inhabitants, 
either  by  personal  intercourse  or  those  other  means  which 
science  has  of  late  years  discovered  or  evolved  for  the 
transmission  of  thought,  whether  on  business  or  other- 
wise— the  letter  post,  the  telegraph,  and  the  telephone. 
I accordingly  purpose  briefly  describing  the  extent  to 
which,  in  these  respects,  Japan  has  assimilated  and  utilised 
Western  ideas. 

I have  already  touched  on  the  matter  of  railway  com- 
munication, so  I will  not  again  refer  to  it  in  any  detail. 
I may,  however,  remark  that  although  railways  in  Japan 
have  done  much  to  open  up  the  country  and  provide  for 
more  frequent  and  rapid  intercourse  between  man  and 
man,  they  still  lack  much  in  the  matter  of  European 
ideas  of  comfort.  There  are  three  classes  of  carriages, 
and  the  fares  of  each  are  extremely  low.  The  gauge  is 
narrow ; the  carriages  are  open,  as  in  America,  with  one 
long  seat  running  down  each  side  and  a shorter  one  at  the 
end.  In  the  first-class  carriages  tea  is  provided,  a kettle 
and  teapot  wherein  to  make  the  beverage  being  placed 


176 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 


177 


on  the  floor  between  the  seats  for  the  use  of  passengers. 
No  doubt  ere  long  the  Japanese  will  be  more  impressed 
than  they  appear  to  be  at  present  as  to  the  necessity  for 
express  trains,  high  speeds,  Pullman  and  restaurant  cars, 
as  well  as  for  other  now  indispensable  characteristics  of 
English  and  American  railways.  The  initial  railway  line 
in  Japan  was  that  between  Yokohama  and  the  capital.  It 
was  popular  and  well  patronised  from  the  first,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  record  of  railways  in  China,  where  the 
initial  line — that  between  Shanghai  and  Wusung — had  to 
be  bought  up  and  pulled  up  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  in 
view  of  the  number  of  Chinamen  who  persisted  in  com- 
mitting suicide  by  placing  themselves  in  front  of  the  train 
as  a protest — and  a most  effective  protest,  it  must  be 
admitted — against  the  introduction  into  their  country  of 
this  contrivance  of  the  “ foreign  devils.”  The  contrast  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  introduction  of  railways  was 
received  in  China  and  Japan  respectively  is,  I think, 
characteristic  of  the  difference  in  the  disposition  and 
mental  attitude  of  the  people  of  the  two  countries. 

A postal  service  modelled  on  that  of  Europe  was 
inaugurated  in  Japan  in  1871  by  the  introduction  of 
a Government  letter  post  between  Tokio,  Kyoto,  Osaka, 
and  Yokohama.  Arrangements  had,  of  course,  long  pre- 
viously existed  for  the  transmission  of  official  corre- 
spondence throughout  the  country,  but  private  letters 
were  conveyed  by  private  carriers.  The  following  year 
the  official  postal  service  was  extended  to  the  whole  of 
Japan,  but  not  till  twelve  months  later  were  private 
carriers  abolished  and  the  post-office,  with  all  its  various 
ramifications,  constituted  a State  monopoly.  Postcards, 
embossed  envelopes,  newspaper  wrappers,  and  all  the 
paraphernalia — so  far  as  they  had  then  been  developed — 

N 


178 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  European  post-offices  were  adopted  by  the  Japanese 
postal  authorities,  and  caught  on  with  the  people  with 
surprising  rapidity.  In  1875  mail  steamers  were  estab- 
lished between  Japan  and  the  Chinese  ports,  and  the  next 
year  Japan,  which  at  that  time  had,  as  I have  elsewhere 
mentioned,  to  view  post-offices  established  in  the  treaty 
ports,  herself  planted  Japanese  post-offices  in  both  China 
and  Korea.  The  Postal  Union  was  joined  in  1877,  and 
from  that  time  the  Japanese  post-office  has  developed, 
pari  passu  with  the  post-offices  of  European  countries 
until  at  the  present  time  it  is  in  some  respects  ahead  of 
them  in  the  matter  of  enterprise  and  the  facilities  it 
affords.  The  Inland  Parcel  Post  was  established  in  1892, 
and  it  has  had  a marked  effect  in  the  opening  up  of  the 
country  and  the  familiarising  of  the  people  with  many 
commodities,  principally  European,  of  which  they  had 
previously  no  knowledge.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
considerably  over  6,000  post-offices.  About  a thousand 
millions  of  letters  and  postcards — a favourite  means  of 
communication — are  handled  yearly.  The  number  of 
parcels  at  present  sent  through  the  post  amounts  to 
about  eleven  millions  annually. 

Every  description  of  post-office  business  as  known  in 
Europe  is  not  only  transacted  in  Japan,  but,  so  far 
as  results  go  to  show,  each  new  phase  seems  to  fill 
a distinct  want  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Take  the 
matter  of  postal  orders  for  example,  the  introduction 
of  which  in  this  country  was  so  vigorously  opposed  by 
the  banking  community,  but  a facility  which  has  proved 
of  incalculable  utility  and  convenience  to  the  mass  of  the 
public.  Postal  orders,  when  introduced  into  Japan,  quickly 
came  into  favour.  In  the  first  year  only  a certain  number 
of  offices  were  authorised  to  issue  and  to  pay  these  orders. 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 


179 


This  number  has  now  been  largely  increased,  and  many 
millions  of  postal  orders  are  at  present  annually  sold  in 
Japan.  The  International  Postal  Order  Service  has  also 
assumed  considerable  dimensions,  and  has  largely  aided, 
I think,  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  development 
of  the  country. 

Post  Office  Savings  Banks  were  established  in  Japan  as 
far  back  as  1875.  The  object,  as  in  this  country,  was  to 
encourage  thrift  among  the  mass  of  the  people.  The 
maximum  deposit  in  one  year  of  any  depositor  is  limited 
to  500  yen  (about  ;£^5o).  The  Post  Office  Savings  Bank 
has  been  largely  utilised,  and  both  the  number  of 
depositors  and  the  sums  deposited  continue  to  grow  on 
a scale  which  shows  that  the  utility  and  benefit  of  this 
institution  are  greatly  appreciated  by  the  Japanese  people. 
At  first  the  Savings  Bank  was  worked  at  a loss  ; it  took 
time  to  develop,  while  in  its  infancy  banking  methods 
were  probably  not  as  well  understood  by  the  Japanese 
authorities  as  they  now  are.  At  the  present  time  the  Post 
Office  Savings  Bank  in  Japan  is  so  worked  that  it  not  only 
pays  all  its  expenses  but  returns  a profit  to  the  national 
exchequer.  In  this  respect  it  very  favourably  compares 
with  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  as  administered  in  this 
country,  which  is  not  only  worked  at  a loss,  but,  owing  to 
various  causes,  has  entailed  a liability,  nominal  though  it 
be,  on  the  British  taxpayer. 

Telegraphs  were  first  introduced  into  Japan  in  1869, 
and,  as  was  the  custom  at  that  time  in  almost  all  countries, 
the  telegraph  followed  the  railway.  The  first  line  was 
between  the  capital  and  Yokohama.  As  time  progressed 
some  steps  were  taken  in  the  direction  of  developing  the 
system,  but  it  was  not  until  1878  that  the  telegraph 
service  in  Japan  was  placed  on  a proper  footing.  In  1879 


180 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  International  Telegraph  Union  was  entered.  At  the 
present  time  Japan  is  covered  by  a network  of  telegraph 
wires,  and  every  important  island  is  in  communication 
with  the  capital.  Telegrams  may  be  sent  either  in  the 
Japanese  or  European  languages.  Like  every  other 
means  of  communication,  the  telegraph  has  been  rapidly 
adopted  by  the  Japanese  people,  and  it  now  forms  such 
a part  of  the  national  life  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
imagine  the  country  without  a telegraph  system.  There 
are  about  2,600  telegraph  offices  in  Japan,  and  over  twenty 
million  messages  are  annually  despatched  therefrom. 
I think  it  will  be  admitted  that — especially  in  view  of 
the  difficulties  occasioned  by  the  necessity  of  the 
operators  in  the  telegraph  offices  being  conversant  to 
some  extent  with  the  characteristics  of  two  absolutely 
different  descriptions  of  languages — the  progress  made 
by  Japan,  and  the  development  and  extension  of  the 
telegraph  service  of  the  country,  have  been  really 
remarkable. 

When  the  question  of  introducing  telephones  into  Japan 
came  up  for  consideration  it  was  treated  somewhat  more 
practically  than  was  the  case  with  reference  to  a similar 
matter  in  this  country.  There  was  there  as  here  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  telephonic  communica- 
tion should  be  left  to  private  enterprise  or  be  constituted 
a Government  monopoly.  After  somewhat  prolonged 
investigation  it  was  decided  that  the  telephone  service 
should  be  set  up  and  worked  by  the  Government,  and  in 
the  year  1890  the  first  telephone,  that  between  Tokio  and 
Yokohama,  was  opened.  At  first,  strange  to  say,  this  new 
device  of  Western  civilisation  appears  somewhat  to  have 
hung  fire,  and  no  general  demand  sprung  up  for  the 
fitting  of  the  telephone  to  private  houses.  It  required,  as 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 


181 


indeed  was  the  case  in  this  country,  some  education  of  the 
people  in  regard  to  the  paramount  advantages  of  always 
having  this  means  of  communication  at  hand.  The 
process  of  education  in  this  respect  was  not  prolonged. 
Before  the  telephone  had  been  many  years  in  the  country 
the  demand  for  its  installation  in  houses  and  offices 
became  so  great  that  the  Government  had  to  obtain  a 
special  grant  of  money  in  order  to  carry  out  the  necessary 
work.  According  to  the  latest  returns  there  are  some- 
where about  350  telephone  offices  open  to  the  public, 
while  the  approximate  number  of  messages  transmitted 
is  about  150,000,000.  The  time  is  not  far  distant  when, 
as  I think  will  also  be  the  case  in  this  country,  the 
telephone  will  be  deemed  to  be  an  indispensable  adjunct 
of  almost  every  house  in  the  towns  of  Japan. 

In  connection  with  the  means  of  communication  one 
or  two  remarks  in  reference  to  tramways  may  not  be 
out  of  place.  These  are  entirely,  or  almost  entirely, 
electric,  and  have  certainly,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the 
patronage  accorded  to  them,  been  very  favourably 
received  by  the  Japanese  people.  According  to  the 
latest  returns  I have  available  there  were  twenty-two 
tramway  companies  in  Japan,  which  between  them,  in 
the  year  1904,  carried  the  very  respectable  total  of  over 
73,000,000  passengers.  All  of  these  lines  save  one  are 
electric.  The  first  electric  tramway,  that  in  Kyoto,  was 
opened  in  1895,  so  that  the  development  of  the  country 
in  this  direction  has  proceeded  rapidly.  The  Tokio 
Electric  Tramway  Company  pays  a dividend  of  li  per 
cent.,  and  although  this  is  a record  which  some  of 
the  other  lines  have  not  yet  attained,  and  may  not 
possibly  attain,  nevertheless  these  matters  must  not 
be  altogether  looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of 


182 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


dividends.  The  shareholder  very  probably  regards  them 
from  that  standpoint,  but  I suggest  that  the  facilities 
given  to  a town  may  be  as  great  or  even  greater  by  a 
tramway  paying  2,  or  3,  or  5 per  cent,  as  by 
one  paying  double  that  figure.  Indeed,  large  dividends 
are  often  earned  by  cutting  down  expenditure  or  abstain- 
ing from  expenditure  designed  to  increase  the  facilities 
of  passengers.  There  is  every  prospect  of  electric  tram- 
ways being  extended  to  every  town  of  any  importance 
in  Japan,  and  I am  confident  they  will  greatly  aid  in 
the  industrial  development  of  the  land. 

I cannot  leave  a consideration  of  the  means  of 
communication  in  Japan  without  making  some  reference 
to  that  somewhat  peculiar  vehicle  which  is  by  so 
many  persons  deemed  to  be  essentially  characteristic  of 
the  country,  although,  as  a matter  of  fact,  I believe  it 
is  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  having  been 
introduced  either  by  a European  or  an  American ; I 
refer,  of  course,  to  the  jinricksha.  Before  Japan  became 
to  so  great  an  extent  the  objective  point  of  the  globe- 
trotter, and  Europe,  through  the  medium  of  numerous 
books,  was  rendered  conversant  with  everything  relating 
to  the  country,  nothing  more  struck  the  imagination  of 
the  new  arrival  in  Japan  than  the  sight  of  this  extra- 
ordinary vehicle — a kind  of  armchair  on  wheels  with 
two  shafts,  pulled  by  a man  scantily  clad  and  with 
extremely  muscular  legs.  Whoever  was  the  individual 
responsible  for  the  invention  of  the  jinricksha,  he  certainly 
conferred  a great  boon  on  all  foreigners  resident  in  Japan 
before  railways  and  tramways  and  other  means  of  commu- 
nication became  as  prevalent  as  they  now  are.  The  long 
distances  traversed  by  the  man  between  the  shafts  of  a 
jinricksha  and  the  speed  he  attained  and  maintained  were 


AKRIAI.  TRANSPORT;  RASKKT  SLUNC;  ON  ROPES.  PROVINCP:  OF  HIDA 

FROM  A I'RINT  BV  HIROSHIGE 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 


183 


almost  a marvel  to  the  foreign  visitor.  It  was  possible  to 
get  about  the  country  in  one  of  these  vehicles  quite  as  fast 
as  any  horse-drawn  vehicle  could  convey  one,  and  quite  as 
comfortably,  I have  heard  it  stated  that  the  men  who 
pull  these  vehicles  unduly  develop  their  legs  at  the 
expense  of  other  portions  of  their  body,  and  that  the 
speed  at  which  they  run  and  which  they  certainly  keep  up 
for  extraordinarily  long  periods  has  extremely  injurious 
effects  on  their  constitution,  so  that  they  are,  as  a rule, 
not  long-lived.  I am  not  aware,  nor  have  I been  able 
to  ascertain,  whether  such  statements  are  mere  theories  or 
have  any  foundation  in  fact.  This  much  I will  say,  that  the 
Japanese  jinricksha-runners  are  an  extraordinary  class  in 
reference  to  the  speed  which  they  attain  dragging  a goodly 
weight  for  a very  long  distance.  It  does  not  seem  likely 
that  the  jinricksha,  acclimatised  as  it  has  been  in  Japan, 
will  be  ousted  by  other  modern  contrivances  for  getting 
about  the  country.  It  is  still  very  much  in  evidence, 
and  it  is  universally  admitted  by  those  who  have  had 
experience  of  it  to  be  a most  comfortable  means  of 
locomotion.  Why  it  has  never  come  into  favour,  at  least 
to  any  extent,  elsewhere  than  in  Japan  I have  never  been 
able  to  understand.  Certainly  jinrickshas  can  be  hired  at 
Shanghai,  and  they  are  to  be  seen  at  one  or  two  other 
places  in  the  Far  East,  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  a 
distinctly  Japanese  vehicle,  although,  as  I have  said,  there 
is  nothing  Japanese  about  it  excepting  its  adaptation  in 
the  country, 

I remarked  at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter  that 
we  may  properly  gauge  the  progress  of  a nation  by  the 
facilities  it  possesses  or  has  developed  for  inter-communi- 
cation personally  and  otherwise.  I hope  the  few  remarks 
I have  made  on  this  head  may  enable  my  readers  to  form 


184 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


some  idea  as  to  the  position  of  Japan  in  this  matter.  I 
have  not  wearied  them  with  statistics,  but  I have,  I think, 
said  enough  to  show  that  in  everything  relating  to 
communication,  whether  it  be  the  locomotion  of  the 
individual  or  the  facilities  given  to  him  to  communicate 
his  wishes,  desires,  aspirations,  sentiments,  Japan  is  now 
well  in  line  with  all  the  other  great  civilised  Powers,  and 
has  reason  to  be  proud  of  the  progress  she  has  made  and 
the  manner  in  which  she  has  adapted  to  the  requirements 
of  her  people  the  ideas  and  inventions  she  has  obtained 
from  Europe  and  America. 


CHAPTER  XV 


LAW  AND  ORDER 

IN  every  nation  which  aspires  to  be  regarded  as  civilised 
the  supremacy  of  the  law  and  the  maintenance  of 
order  are  matters  of  supreme  importance.  The  most 
perfect  code  of  law  ever  devised  is  quite  evidently  of  no 
importance  unless  adequate  means  exist  for  enforcing  its 
provisions,  and  although  justice  may  be  lauded  as  a most 
admirable  object  of  attainment,  yet,  unless  the  courts  of 
the  country  are  independent,  hold  the  scales  evenly  and 
use  the  sword  with  impartiality,  justice  will  remain  merely 
a sentiment,  and  there  will  be  no  practical  exemplification 
of  it.  I have  considered  in  this  book  as  tersely  as  possible 
most  of  the  factors  of  civilisation  in  Japan.  Let  me 
briefly  deal  with  this  matter  of  law  and  order. 

When  the  Revolution  was  effected  in  1868  the  whole 
legal  procedure  of  the  country  was  thrown  more  or  less 
into  a condition  of  disorganisation.  Prior  to  1868,  as  my 
readers  will  have  seen,  feudal  principles  prevailed  in  Japan. 
The  feudal  lords,  or  Daimios,  administered  justice,  or  what 
passed  for  it,  within  their  own  territories,  and  they  were 
answerable  to  the  central  authority.  In  theory  the  feudal 
lords  were  commissioners  of  the  ruling  sovereign  from 
whom  they  derived  their  authority  ; in  practice  they  were 

185 


186 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


very  largely  a law  unto  themselves,  and  their  subjects  had 
little  or  no  practical  chance  of  redress  in  the  event  of  their 
suffering  any  injustice.  It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain 
whether  there  was  in  reality  a legal  code  of  any  kind  in 
existence  and  under  the  ken  of  these  feudal  lords.  The  legal 
system  then  in  vogue  appears  to  have  been  based  for  the 
most  part  on  custom  and  usage.  A writer  on  the  subject 
has  remarked  that  the  few  written  laws  were  of  a 
thoroughly  practical  character.  Unfortunately  I have 
not  had  an  opportunity  of  acquainting  myself  with  the 
nature  of  these  laws.  They  were  probably,  like  every- 
thing else  in  the  country,  imported  from  China,  and 
indeed  the  Chinese  legal  system  has  been  supreme  in 
Japan  until  recently,  and  even  now  I am  not  quite  certain 
that  much  of  its  influence  does  not  remain.  I have  read 
that  the  fundamental  principle  underlying  the  written 
laws  referred  to  was  that : “ The  people  should  obey 
the  law,  but  should  not  know  the  law.”  The  code  was 
accordingly  a secret  one.  I have  not  space,  nor  indeed 
have  I any  inclination,  to  deal  with  what  is,  after  all, 
an  academical  question  as  to  the  law  prevalent  in  Japan 
prior  to  the  Revolution.  It  was  probably  for  the  most 
part,  just  as  in  other  countries  when  feudalism  existed, 
a kind  of  rough-and-ready  justice,  which  perhaps 
served  its  purpose  well  at  the  time,  and  depended  more 
as  regards  the  matter  of  justice  upon  the  adminis- 
trator of  it  than  upon  the  code  itself.  Though  the 

Revolution  took  place  in  1868,  it  was  not  until  1871  that 
the  Daimios  were  deprived  of  all  their  administrative 
authority.  The  whole  of  the  country  was  then  divided 
into  districts  under  the  control  of  the  central  Government, 
and  all  relics  of  feudalism  and  class  privileges,  which  had 
been  numerous,  were  ruthlessly  swept  away.  In  due 


LAW  AND  ORDER 


187 


course  a civil  code,  commercial  code,  code  of  civil 
procedure,  and  code  of  criminal  procedure  were  issued. 
One  or  two  of  these  codes  were  found  not  to  work  well  in 
practice,  and  they  have  been  submitted  to  and  revised  by 
committees  specially  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

As  I stated  in  the  chapter  on  the  Constitution  the 
independence  of  the  judges  is  recognised  and  provided  for. 
The  legal  system  of  Japan  at  the  present  time  is  eclectic. 
As  I have  said,  the  Chinese  system  of  legal  procedure  long 
obtained,  and  its  influences  may  perhaps  to  some  extent 
still  remain.  Nevertheless  Japan  has  gone  to  various 
countries  and  selected  what  she  deemed  good  in  each  for 
her  present  legal  system.  The  jurisprudence  of  both 
France  and  England  have  been  largely  drawn  on.  In 
reference  to  the  civil  law  custom  is,  as  might  have  been 
expected  in  view  of  the  circumstances  of  the  country,  still 
strongly  relied  on.  There  has  often  been  a difficulty  in 
ascertaining  custom  owing  to  the  changed  and  changing 
conditions  of  the  nation,  and  in  reference  thereto  very 
much  the  same  procedure  has  followed  as  in  this  country 
where  the  question  of  custom  is  so  frequently  pleaded  in 
the  courts  of  law.  Some  of  the  German  system  of 
jurisprudence  has  also  been  included  in  the  Japanese  legal 
system.  As  I have  elsewhere  observed,  the  suggestion 
to  abolish  extra-territoriality,  and  with  it  the  foreign 
courts  in  Japan,  met  with  a considerable  amount  of 
opposition  from  the  foreign  community  there  who  believed 
that  they  would  not  be  able  to  obtain  justice  in  the 
Japanese  courts.  These  fears  have  been  shown  to  be 
groundless,  and  it  is  now  generally  recognised  that  the 
foreigner  in  Japan  need  have  no  fear  of  going  into  a 
Japanese  court  where  he  is,  whether  it  be  a civil  or 
criminal  matter,  certain  to  obtain  a perfectly  fair  trial. 


188 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Closely  connected  with  law  is  the  matter  of  police.  In 
Japan  the  police  of  the  country  are  entirely  under  the 
control  of  the  State,  just  as  are  the  constabulary  in  Ireland. 
The  police  are  under  the  orders  of  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  who  has  a special  office  for  dealing  with  the  matter. 
The  cost  of  the  force  is,  however,  paid  by  each  prefecture, 
the  State  granting  a small  subsidy.  According  to  the 
latest  statistics,  the  police  force  of  Japan  amounted  to 
something  under  35,000  officers  and  men.  When  we  con- 
sider that  this  body  of  men  is  responsible  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  law  and  the  preservation  of  order  among  some 
47,000,000  people,  it  will,  I think,  be  admitted  that  the 
number  is  not  excessive.  The  social  condition  of  the 
Japanese  police,  if  I may  use  such  a term,  is  higher  than 
that  of  the  police  in  this  and  other  countries.  In  Japan 
the  police  force  had  its  genesis  after  the  abolition  of 
feudalism,  and,  as  a matter  of  fact,  a large  proportion  of 
the  first  members  thereof  belonged  to  the  Samurai  class. 
The  social  position  and  intellectual  attainment  of  these 
young  men  gave  what  I may  term  a standing  to  the 
police  force  in  Japan  which  it  has  not  yet  lost.  Of  course, 
nothing  like  the  same  class  of  men  is  now  attracted  to  it, 
the  salaries  are  comparatively  small  and  the  work  is  not 
over-congenial  for  people  whose  ideas  are  such  as  those  of 
the  Japanese. 

I may  mention,  as  an  interesting  feature  in  this  connec- 
tion, that  the  Government  have  established  a police  and 
prison  college  in  Tokio,  where  both  police  and  prison 
officials  are  effectively  trained  for  the  discharge  of  their 
duties.  This  college  was  established  when  extra-territori- 
ality was  abolished,  with  the  view  of  ensuring  a higher 
training  in  view  of  the  additional  responsibilities  that 
would  devolve  upon  the  police  and  prison  officials. 


LAW  AND  ORDER 


189 


From  police  I naturally  come  to  some  consideration  of 
prisons.  There  are  a large  number  of  people  in  this 
country  who  have  the  idea  in  their  mind  that  prisons  are 
a weak  point  in  all  foreign  countries,  and  that  it  is  only  in 
England  that  these  regrettable  institutions  are  properly 
managed.  In  fact  the  idea  now  seems  to  be  prevalent 
here  that  we  have  gone  too  far  in  the  direction  of  making 
prisons  comfortable,  and  that  excellent  alliteration 
“ Coddled  Criminals  ” has  more  than  once  done  duty  in 
print  in  this  connection.  I consider  that  the  present 
prison  system  in  Japan  is  regulated  and  administered  on 
sounder  principles  than  those  that  obtain  in  this  country. 
There  are  in  all  about  140  prisons  in  Japan.  All  the  old 
prisons  in  the  country  were  constructed  of  wood  and 
arranged  on  the  associate  system.  A separate  cell  system 
is,  however,  specially  provided  for  foreign  criminals,  who 
are  given  clothes,  bedding,  and  other  articles  to  which  they 
are  used.  The  Government,  a few  years  ago,  commenced 
the  construction  of  a number  of  new  prisons,  for  the  most 
part  built  of  brick,  in  which  a mixed  system  of  separation 
and  association,  according  to  the  offences  of  the  prisoners, 
will  be  employed.  The  windows  of  these  prisons  were 
directed  to  be  made  especially  large,  so  that  the  prisoners 
might  have  plenty  of  light  and  air.  This  is  a matter  in 
which  some  foreign  Governments,  that  of  this  country 
included,  might  well  take  a lesson  from  Japan. 

It  is  pleasing  to  be  able  to  state  that  since  1899  the 
inmates  of  the  prisons  have  been  decreasing  in  number. 
There  is  nothing  quite  analogous  to  the  ticket-of-leave 
system  in  this  country.  Parole  is  suggested  by  a prison 
governor  to  the  Minister  of  Justice  in  reference  to  any 
prisoner  whom  he  may  deem  worthy  of  the  privilege, 
provided  that  prisoner  has  completed  three-fourths  of  the 


190 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


sentence  imposed  upon  him  and  has  shown  a disposition 
to  live  more  worthily.  I do  not  quite  know  how  this 
latter  fact  is  made  plain  in  gaol,  but  at  any  rate  the 
prison  governor  has  to  be  convinced  of  it.  A prisoner 
thus  released  remains  under  police  supervision  during 
the  remainder  of  his  sentence. 

In  Japan  the  death  penalty  is  not  confined  to  murder. 
It  may  be  inflicted  for  robbery  with  violence,  homicide, 
wounds  inflicted  by  children  upon  their  fathers, 
mothers,  and  grand-parents,  as  well  as  for  arson.  This 
sounds  a somewhat  drastic  blood  code,  but  when  I state 
that  the  average  number  of  persons  executed  in  Japan 
does  not  exceed  thirty  a year,  it  will  be  seen  that  either 
the  crimes  mentioned  are  infrequent  or  that  the  punish- 
ment of  death  is  only  inflicted  in  extreme  cases. 

One  interesting  feature  of  the  Japanese  prison  system  is 
the  granting  of  medals  to  criminals  who  have  shown  an 
amendment  of  their  lives  by  good  conduct  and  diligence 
at  their  work.  The  privileges  enjoyed  by  persons  possess- 
ing these  medals  are  so  interesting  that  I will  transcribe 
them  here : — 

1.  All  medallists  are  supplied  with  superior  kinds  of 
garments  and  other  articles. 

2.  Each  medallist  is  allowed  to  send  out  two  letters 
per  month. 

3.  Medallists  enjoy  the  privilege  of  bathing  prior  to 
other  prisoners,  hot  water  being  used  in  accordance  with 
the  general  custom  of  the  Japanese  people. 

4.  The  supply  of  accessories  is  increased  in  quantity 
every  week  for  medallists,  according  to  the  number  of 
medals  granted,  to  the  extent  of  an  increased  expense  of 
two  sen  or  less  for  one  meal  per  person.  This  increase 
is  granted  once  a week  to  the  possessor  of  two  medals^ 


LAW  AND  ORDER  191 

and  three  times  a week  for  each  possessor  of  three 
medals. 

5.  The  allotment  of  earnings  is  made  in  the  following 
proportion,  the  remainder  being  applied  to  prison  ex- 
penses : — 

Three-tenths  to  each  felon  to  whom  one  medal  has  been 
granted. 

Four-tenths  to  each  misdemeanant  to  whom  one  medal 
has  been  awarded. 

Four-tenths  to  each  felon  having  been  granted  two 
medals. 

Five-tenths  to  each  felon  possessing  three  medals. 

Six-tenths  to  each  misdemeanant  granted  three  medals. 

There  is  no  need  for  me  to  deal  with  the  question 
of  punishment  of  criminals  in  Japanese  prisons.  I may, 
however,  remark  that  in  respect  of  foreign  criminals  every 
effort  is  made  to  treat  them  in  accordance  with  their 
conditions  of  national  life  in  regard  to  bathing,  food,  &c. 
In  reference  to  the  question  of  prison  labour,  which  has 
become  somewhat  of  a vexed  economic  problem  in  this 
country,  the  Japanese  authorities  do  not  appear  to 
experience  much  difficulty.  The  object  of  the  prison 
system  of  labour  is  to  give  the  prisoners  a careful  training, 
and  to  encourage  diligence,  so  that  on  their  return  to  the 
world  they  may  not  experience  difficulty  in  obtaining 
employment.  The  labour  is  of  two  kinds — Government, 
and  for  private  individuals.  In  the  latter  case  the  neces- 
sary labour  is  obtained  from  the  prisons  direct,  the 
employers  supplying  the  material.  I think  this  part  of 
the  system  is  perhaps  open  to  question,  as  it  has  been 
found  in  other  countries  productive  of  grave  abuses. 

The  discharged  prisoner  in  Japan,  as  in  other  countries, 
finds  a difficulty  in  obtaining  employment,  and  several 


192 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


societies  similar  to  those  in  existence  here  have  been 
established  with  a view  of  assisting  discharged  prisoners. 

I have  not  sufficient  information  to  enable  me  to  say 
what  measure  of  success  these  societies  have  achieved. 
In  a country  like  Japan,  which  is  endeavouring  to  perfect 
all  her  institutions,  I hope  that  the  discharged  prisoner 
problem  will  be  solved  otherwise  than  by  philanthropic 
societies.  The  criminal  who  has  completed  his  sentence 
ought  to  be  deemed  to  have  purged  his  offence,  and  has 
a right  to  return  to  the  community  and  obtain  work  until, 
if  ever,  he  again  misconducts  himself 

I hope  my  few  remarks  on  the  subject  of  the  means 
taken  in  Japan  to  maintain  law  and  order  will  tend  to 
convince  my  readers  that  in  every  detail  of  her  adminis- 
tration Japan  has  shown  a capacity  for  adapting  what  is 
good  in  foreign  nations  and  moulding  it  for  her  own 
purposes.  The  foreign  community  in  Japan  has  long 
since  got  over  its  state  of  panic  in  regard  to  the  danger  of 
suing  and  being  sued  in  Japanese  courts,  and  the  possibility 
of  being  an  inmate  of  a Japanese  gaol.  The  years  that 
have  elapsed  since  the  treaties  were  revised  have  demon- 
strated clearly  that,  if  anything,  extra  consideration  is 
shown  to  the  foreigner  in  all  the  details  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  law  in  Japan.  I remarked  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter  that  the  supremacy  of  the  law  and  the 
maintenance  of  order  are  matters  of  supreme  importance 
in  every  civilised  country.  Japan  has  recognised  this  fact, 
and  she  has  acted  upon  the  recognition  thereof  with  most 
admirable  results. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA 
HE  literature  of  Japan  is  a somewhat  recondite 


subject,  while  the  Japanese  drama  is  at  present,  like 
many  other  things  in  the  country,  to  a great  extent  in  a 
state  of  transition.  Still,  some  remarks  on  these  two 
matters  are,  I consider,  absolutely  essential  in  order  that 
my  readers  may  form  some  idea  of  two  important  phases 
of  Japanese  life.  The  literature  of  Japan  is  indeed  largely 
mixed  up  with  the  national  life  through  many  centuries — 
a reflection,  in  fact,  of  it.  The  late  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  whose 
great  authority  on  everything  connected  with  Japan  is 
generally  admitted,  has  observed  in  reference  to  the 
literature  of  that  country  : “ The  time  will  come  when 
Japan,  safe,  famous,  and  glad  with  the  promise  of  peaceful 
years  to  follow  and  to  reward  this  present  period  of  life 
and  death  conflict,  will  engage  once  again  the  attraction 
of  the  Western  nations  on  the  side  of  her  artistic  and 
intellectual  gifts.  Already  in  this  part  of  the  globe 
persons  of  culture  have  become  well  aware  how  high  and 
subtle  is  her  artistic  genius ; and  by  and  by  it  will  be 
discovered  that  there  are  real  treasures  to  be  found  in  her 
literature.  Moreover,  England,  beyond  any  other  Euro- 
pean country,  is  likely  to  be  attracted  to  this  branch,  at 

O 193 


194 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


present  naturally  neglected,  of  what  may  be  called  the 
spiritual  side  of  Japanese  life.” 

The  drawback  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  somewhat  opti- 
mistic forecast  of  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  is  the  great  difficulty 
experienced  by  the  Western  nations  in  acquiring  a 
sufficient  knowledge  of  the  language  in  which  the  treasures 
of  Japanese  literature  are  embedded  if  not  entombed.  No 
man  can  ever  grasp  the  beauties  of  a literature,  and 
especially  an  Oriental  literature,  through  the  medium  of 
a translation,  however  well  done.  A translation  is  like  a 
diamond  with  the  brilliancy  removed,  if  we  can  imagine 
such  a thing.  It  may  be  faultlessly  correct  in  its  render- 
ing, and  yet  absolutely  misleading  in  its  interpretation  of 
the  original. 

Japanese  literature  embraces  poetry,  history,  fiction, 
books  of  ceremony  and  travel,  as  well  as  many  works 
of  an  ethical  nature.  Poetry  is  supposed  to  have  reached 
its  most  brilliant  period  in  Japan  a long  way  back — long 
even  before  Geoffrey  Chaucer  took  up  his  pen  to  write 
those  immortal  lines  which  I fear  but  comparatively  few 
Englishmen  now  read.  In  reference  to  this  poetry  of 
twelve  hundred  years  ago,  Mr.  Aston — perhaps  the 
greatest  authority  on  the  subject — remarks  : “ While  the 
eighth  century  has  left  us  little  or  no  prose  literature  of 
importance,  it  was  emphatically  the  golden  age  of  poetry. 
Japan  has  now  outgrown  the  artless  effusions  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  during  this  period  produced 
a body  of  verse  of  an  excellence  which  has  never  since 
been  surpassed.  The  reader  who  expects  to  find  this 
poetry  of  a nation  just  emerging  from  the  barbaric  stage 
of  culture  characterised  by  rude,  untutored  vigour,  will  be 
surprised  to  learn  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  distinguished 
by  polish  rather  than  power.  It  is  delicate  in  sentiment 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA 


195 


and  refined  in  language,  and  displays  exquisite  skill  of 
phrase  with  a careful  adherence  to  certain  canons  of 
composition  of  its  own.” 

I confess  my  knowledge  of  the  language  is  insufficient 
to  enable  me  to  read  Japan’s  literary  treasures  in  the 
original,  and  as  I have  remarked,  no  man  through  the 
medium  of  a translation  can  adequately  form  a correct 
opinion  respecting  any  description  of  foreign  literature. 
I fear,  however,  that  modern  Japan  is  as  little  concerned 
with  its  eighth-century  poetry  as  the  modern  Englishman 
is  with  that  of  Chaucer,  not  to  speak  of  those  great  poets, 
most  of  whom  are  now  forgotten,  who  lived  long  before 
Chaucer  and  whose  verses  were  not  only  read  but  sung 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 

In  a much  later  period  of  the  history  of  the  country, 
literature  was  undoubtedly  greatly  in  vogue.  There  was 
evolved  what  I may  term  a distinct  literary  class,  the 
language  and  literature  of  China  were  diligently  studied, 
and  very  much  of  the  literature  of  this  time  is  written 
in  Chinese.  That  language,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been 
at  one  period  regarded  in  Japan  very  much  as  Latin 
was,  and  in  some  quarters  is  even  still,  regarded  in  Europe 
as  the  appropriate  medium  for  expressing  the  most  sublime 
thoughts  of  the  brightest  intellects.  The  fiction  of  this 
period,  usually  termed  the  Heian — and  there  is  plenty  of 
it  still  in  existence — was  for  the  most  part  written  by 
women,  so  that  it  will  be  seen  the  female  novelist  is  not, 
as  some  persons  appear  to  imagine,  a comparatively 
modern  development.  After  the  twelfth  century — and 
most  of  the  literature  I have  referred  to  is  anterior  to  that 
— petty  wars  between  the  feudal  princes  appear  to  have 
been  incessant,  and  the  whole  country  was  for  a great 
number  of  years  more  concerned  with  fighting  than  with 


196 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


literature.  History  or  historical  romance  seems  to  have 
been  the  favourite  literary  exercitation  during  this  period. 
A good  deal  of  the  literature  thereof  is  still,  I understand, 
read  in  Japan,  especially  by  its  youth,  for  whom  the 
stirring  episodes  embodied  in  the  history  and  historical 
romances  of  these  bellicose  times  seem  to  have  an  especial 
fascination. 

The  Tokugawa  period,  covering  the  270  years  during 
which  the  Government  of  the  Tycoon  was  installed  in 
Yeddo,  was  one  during  which  literature  made  great 
progress  in  Japan.  Those  years  were  a time  of  profound 
peace  ; the  country  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world, 
thrown  in  upon  itself,  and  accordingly  had  ample  leisure, 
and  possibly  much  inclination,  to  develop  its  artistic  side, 
especially  in  literature.  The  study  of  books  was  prevalent 
everywhere,  and  quite  a band  of  teachers  arose  in  the  land 
whose  mission  it  was  to  expound  its  ancient  literature,  and 
exhume  for  public  edification  and  delectation  many  of  the 
buried  literary  treasures  of  the  past.  These  teachers  were 
not  content  with  mere  oral  description  ; they  wrote  what 
would  now  be  termed  treatises  or  commentaries,  many  of 
which  show  great  depth  of  learning,  by  way  of  expounding 
and  explaining  the  classics  of  Japan  with  a view  of 
bringing  them  within  the  ken  of  the  great  mass  of  the 
people.  This  period  (the  Tokugawa)  also  had  its  works 
of  fiction  ; it  produced  many  dramas  and,  I believe,  some, 
if  not  much,  poetry.  The  romances  of  this  time  are,  I am 
told,  written  principally  for  or  down  to  the  level  of  the 
common  people.  The  classics  of  Japan  were,  and  probably 
still  are,  like  the  classics  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  respect  of 
the  mass  of  the  people  of  this  country,  not  understood, 
and  most  likely  were  they,  would  not  be  appreciated. 
And  hence  in  the  Tokugawa  period  what  I may  term 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA 


197 


the  popular  writer  was  evolved,  and  he  turned  out,  under 
a noni-de-plume  for  the  most  part,  books  for  the  lower 
orders.  These  works  are  now  regarded  as  somewhat 
vulgar,  but  they  are  in  many  respects  a mirror  of  the 
age  in  which  they  were  written,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
are  much  coarser  in  style  than  some  of  the  novels 
published  in  England  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Vulgarity, 
it  must  be  remembered,  is  largely  a matter  of  opinion, 
and  because  either  the  Japanese  of  to-day  or  the  foreigner 
who  has  perused,  perhaps  in  a translation,  this  fiction  of 
a couple  of  centuries  back,  dubs  it  according  to  the 
opinion  of  to-day  vulgar,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  it 
was  so  considered  in  Japan  two  hundred  years  back. 

Since  the  Revolution  of  1868  it  is  doubtful  if  Japan  has 
produced  any  distinctive  literature.  The  whole  country 
and  all  the  national  modes  of  thought  have  been  in  a state 
of  transition,  a condition  of  unrest — circumstances  not 
conducive  to  the  production  of  classical  literature ; more- 
over, literary  ideas  and  conceptions  have  changed  and  are 
still  changing — changing  rapidly.  The  development  of  a 
powerful  newspaper  press  must  have  a marked  and  far- 
reaching  effect  on  Japanese  literature.  So  also  must  the 
study  of  Western  literature  by  the  educated  classes — a 
study  which  is  both  extensive  and  increasing.  Japanese 
literature  is  now  undoubtedly  in  the  melting-pot,  so  to 
speak,  and  what  will  be  the  precise  result  it  is  impossible 
to  determine.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the  modern 
Japanese  who  has  been  educated  according  to  Western 
methods,  and  is  adequately  acquainted  with  the  languages 
and  literature  of  Europe,  is  infrequently  an  admirer  of  the 
peculiar  literature  of  his  own  country.  Possibly  it  suffers 
by  comparison.  Japan  has  produced  no  Dante,  or  Shake- 
speare, or  Milton.  The  moods  of  her  people,  and  probably 


198 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  limitations  and  peculiarities  of  the  language,  have 
prevented  the  possibility  of  the  appearance  of  such  divine 
geniuses.  There  is,  its  critics  declare,  an  absence  of 
sustained  power  and  sublimity  in  Japanese  literature 
generally,  while  the  didactic  and  philosophical,  if  not 
altogether  lacking,  is  extremely  rare  therein.  But  it 
seems  to  me  the  height  of  absurdity  to  compare  the 
literature  of  a country  like  Japan  with  the  literature  of 
some  other  land  where  everything  is,  and  always  has 
been,  essentially  different.  To  properly  comprehend,  and 
probably  to  be  able  to  appreciate  Japanese  literature,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  get,  so  to  speak,  into  the  atmo- 
sphere in  which  it  was  produced.  To  judge  it  by  twentieth- 
century  standards  and  canons  of  criticism  and  from 
European  standpoints  is  not  only  unfair  but  must  create 
a totally  false  impression. 

In  every  country  which  has  attained  any  degree  ol 
civilisation,  and  even  in  some  countries  whose  civilisation 
is  still  imperfect,  the  drama  has  played  an  important  part, 
and  Japan  has  been  no  exception  to  the  rule.  Its  dramatic 
literature  is,  I believe,  of  considerable  extent,  and  to 
understand,  much  less  appreciate  it  properly  would  require 
very  profound  study.  Many  of  the  more  or  less  ancient 
dramas  are  works  not  only  containing  the  dialogue  of 
the  play  but  much  descriptive  matter.  They  were,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  written  for  theatres  in  which  there  were 
to  be  not  actors  but  marionettes,  singers  being  engaged 
to  sing  the  lines  out  of  sight  while  the  puppets  depicted 
the  characters.  Some  of  these  dramas  have,  since  they 
were  written,  been  adapted  for  the  ordinary  stage  and  the 
characters  portrayed  by  Japan’s  most  famous  actors.  The 
theatre  was  long  looked  down  upon  and  it  is  only  of 
comparatively  recent  years  that  it  has  been  looking  up. 


I 'A V> 

V/z'/Z’/Z^'i'/'/ 

■ v\'^.,\W^'  ^ 

^,SS^^\'^'^\\'v\t- 


I'KINT  BY  TOSHIK'ATA 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA 


199 


A large  number  of  persons  in  this  country  still  appear  to 
be  under  the  impression  that  there  are  no  actresses  on  the 
Japanese  stage.  This  is,  of  course,  a mistake,  caused  no 
doubt  by  the  fact  that  in  Japanese  theatres  the  female 
characters  in  a play  are  so  often  impersonated  by  men. 
Some  two  or  three  centuries  back  actors  and  actresses 
used,  as  in  Europe,  to  play  in  the  same  piece,  but  this  was 
for  some  reason  or  other  interdicted,  and  ever  since  there 
have  been  companies  composed  of  men  and  women 
respectively.  In  the  male  companies  some  of  the  female 
parts  naturally  fell  to  men  and  in  the  female  companies 
the  male  parts  were  of  necessity  depicted  by  women.  Of 
recent  years  the  tendency  is  to  revert  to  the  ancient 
practice  and  to  come  into  line  with  the  custom  of 
European  countries  in  this  matter,  and  ere  long,  no  doubt 
in  Japanese  theatres  the  female  characters  will  be  taken 
by  women  and  the  male  characters  by  men. 

The  theatre  has  always  been  a popular  institution  in 
Japan,  and  the  pieces  usually  played  have  very  much 
the  same  motif  the  dramas  formerly  so  popular  in  this 
country — the  discomfiture  of  the  villain  and  the  triumph 
of  virtue.  The  Japanese  theatre  does  not  appeal  to  the 
ordinary  European  visitor,  or  indeed  to  many  Europeans 
living  in  the  country.  In  the  first  place,  the  performance 
is  too  long  for  the  European  taste,  and  in  the  next,  most 
Japanese  plays  are  of  one  kind,  and  concerned  with  one 
period — the  feudal.  There  is,  moreover,  a plethora  of 
by-play — sword  exercise  and  acrobatic  performances — 
which  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  plot  of  the 
piece.  In  fact,  irrelevancy  appears  to  the  European  the 
chief  characteristic  of  what  he  sees  on  the  stage  of  a 
Japanese  theatre.  Nor  does  the  play,  as  is  usual  in 
serious  dramas  in  this  country,  revolve  round  one  character. 


200 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  hero  or  heroine.  Indeed  it  is  not  always  easy  to 
earmark,  so  to  speak,  the  leading  character,  and  it  is 
occasionally  doubtful  in  many  Japanese  plays  whether 
there  is  any  hero  or  heroine.  But  the  same  remark  may 
be  made  here  as  in  reference  to  the  literature  of  the 
country.  It  is  probably  essential  to  get  into  the  Japanese 
atmosphere  in  order  to  properly  appreciate  a Japanese 
play.  The  drama  in  Japan  at  any  rate  serves,  and  so 
far  as  I have  had  an  opportunity  of  forming  an  opinion 
in  the  matter,  serves  well,  its  purpose  to  interest  and 
amuse  the  frequenters  of  the  theatres,  besides  which  the 
lessons  it  inculcates  are  for  the  most  part  of  a moral 
nature. 

The  high  art  of  the  Japanese  theatre  is  represented  by 
the  “ No,”  which  I suppose  fills  much  the  same  position 
as  does  the  Italian  opera  in  this  country.  The  “ No  ” 
is,  I believe,  very  ancient.  The  written  text  is  sung  ; 
there  is  a principal  and  a secondary  character  and  a 
chorus.  The  dialogue  is  as  ancient,  some  critics  say  as 
archaic,  as  the  time  in  which  the  play  was  written,  and 
I understand  it  requires  being  educated  up  to  it  in  order 
to  fully  appreciate  the  “ No.”  The  ordinary  Japanese 
would  probably  just  as  much  fail  to  comprehend  or  like 
it  as  would  the  Englishman  from  Mile  End,  were  he 
taken  to  Covent  Garden,  and  invited  to  go  into  raptures 
over  one  of  Mozart’s  or  Meyerbeer’s  masterpieces.  A 
performance  of  the  “No ’’would  probably  interest  those 
who  find  excitement  in  a representation  of  “ CEdipus 
Tyrannus,”  or  some  Greek  play.  Still,  the  “No”  is 
appreciated  by  a large  number  of  the  intellectual  classes 
in  Japan,  who  find  an  interest  in  the  representation  of 
this  Japanese  opera,  as  I suppose  it  may  be  termed. 

As  I have  already  said,  very  much  the  same  remarks 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  DRAMA 


201 


made  in  reference  to  the  literature  of  Japan  apply  to  its 
drama.  That  country  is  still  in  the  transition  stage, 
and  both  its  drama  and  its  literature  will  undoubtedly 
be  profoundly  modified  in  future  years.  Western  litera- 
ture and  Western  dramatic  art  have  already  exercised 
considerable  influence,  and  there  are  movements  on  foot 
whose  object  is  to  replace  the  old  ideas  and  methods, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  the  representation  of  dramatic 
works  by  those  which  obtain  in  Europe  and  America. 
Whether  these  movements  will  be  successful  or  not 
remains  to  be  seen.  There  is  certainly  a large  body  of 
public  opinion  not  only  opposed  but  antagonistic  to  them. 
In  spite  of  the  rapid  development  of  Japan  in  recent  years, 
there  is  a very  strong  conservative  party  in  the  country — 
a party  which,  though  it  recognises  or  acquiesces  in  the 
desirability  of  change  in  many  directions,  is  not  prepared 
to  throw  overboard  everything  because  it  is  old.  I sin- 
cerely hope  that  the  distinctive  literature  and  dramatic 
art  of  the  country  will  not  be  allowed  to  die  out.  Japan 
cannot  afford  to  forget  the  past  with  its  influences  on 
the  national  life  and  character,  influences  at  work  for 
many  ages  which  have  assuredly  had  a material  effect 
in  elevating  her  to  the  position  she  at  present  occupies. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN 


APAN  having  taken  on  most  of  the  characteristics  and 


some  of  the  idiosyncracies  of  Western  civilisation, 


has  naturally  developed  a newspaper  press  of  its  own. 
Of  course  newspapers  in  Japan  are  no  new  thing.  Mr. 
Zumoto,  editor  of  the  Japan  Times,  claims  for  Japanese 
journalism  an  origin  as  far  back  as  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  “ Long  before,”  he  remarks,  “ our 
doors  of  seclusion  were  forced  open  by  the  impatient 
nations  of  the  West,  our  ancestors  had  found  a device 
by  which  they  kept  themselves  in  touch  with  current 
events  and  news.  The  news-sheets  of  those  days  were 
roughly  got  up,  being  printed  from  wooden  blocks  hastily 
purchased  for  each  issue.  They  were  meagre  in  news, 
uncouth  in  form,  and  quite  irregular  in  appearance,  there 
being  no  fixed  date  for  publication.  Neither  were  they 
issued  by  any  particular  and  fixed  publisher.  Anybody 
could  issue  them,  and  at  any  time  they  pleased.  These 
sheets  were  called  Yomuri,  which,  being  translated,  means 
‘ sold  by  hawking.’  ” These  ancient  newspapers  had, 
however,  palpably  nothing  in  common  with  modern 
journalism,  and  anything  in  the  shape  of  criticism  or 
comment,  or  any  attempt  to  guide  or  mould  public 


202 


NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN 


203 


opinion  was,  of  course,  not  to  be  found  therein.  He  would 
have  been  a bold  man  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  or  indeed  very  much  later,  who  would  have 
ventured  to  print  and  publish  anything  tending  to  influ- 
ence public  opinion,  or  having  the  appearance  of  being 
a criticism  on  those  in  authority. 

We  may  take  it  that  for  all  practical  purposes  the  rise 
of  the  native  newspaper  press  of  Japan  did  not  take  place 
till  some  time  after  the  Revolution  of  1868.  If  its  rise 
has  been  recent  its  progress  has  certainly  been  rapid. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  both  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  the  vernacular  press  has  been  largely  influenced 
by  English  journalism.  There  have  always,  since  the 
opening  of  the  country,  been  English  newspapers  in 
Japan,  and  very  admirable  newspapers  too.  One  or  more 
Englishmen  have  started  papers  printed  in  Japanese,  and 
although  these  ventures  were  not  commercially  successful, 
they,  at  any  rate,  showed  the  way  for  Japanese  journalism. 
Mr.  Kumoto  in  his  very  interesting  remarks  published  in 
Stead’s  “Japan  and  the  Japanese,”  gives  an  amusing 
illustration  of  the  somewhat  amateur  business  lines  on 
which  the  native  Japanese  newspapers  were  at  first  pro- 
duced. He  quotes  the  following  notice  which  appeared 
in  one  of  them  : “ The  editors  note  with  satisfaction  the 
growing  prosperity  of  their  venture,  and  notify  their  sub- 
scribers that  in  view  of  the  increased  labour  and  trouble 
entailed  on  them  by  their  increasing  circulation,  the 
gracious  subscribers  will  kindly  spare  them  the  trouble  by 
sending  for  their  copies  instead  of  having  them  delivered 
to  them  as  before.”  There  has  certainly  been  a remarkable 
development  in  the  Japanese  newspaper  press  since  this 
somewhat  jejune  announcement  was  published.  Tokio 
at  the  present  time  possesses  about  forty  daily  newspapers. 


204 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  there  is  hardly  a town  in  the  country  of  any  import- 
ance that  has  not  one  or  two  papers  of  its  own.  There 
are  now  more  than  a thousand  magazines  and  newspapers 
of  various  kinds  published  in  the  country — a number  which 
yearly  increases,  and  is  certain  to  increase  in  the  near 
future  to  a very  much  greater  extent. 

But  besides  newspapers,  Japan  possesses  news  agencies 
on  somewhat  similar  lines  to  those  that  exist  in  this 
country,  whose  function  it  is  to  supply  the  press  with 
the  latest  news  on  every  matter  of  public  and,  I am  afraid, 
sometimes  of  merely  private  importance.  Whether  these 
news  agencies  perform  useful  functions  either  in  this 
country  or  in  Japan,  is  a matter  upon  which  I shall 
express  no  opinion.  News  acquired  in  a hurry  in  com- 
petition with  other  agencies  which  exist  for  a similar 
purpose,  and  purveyed  to  journals  printed  in  a hurry  and 
read  in  a hurry,  does  not  often  allow  of  discrimination 
being  exercised  in  regard  to  its  circulation.  The  sen- 
sational element  in  the  native  press  in  Japan  is  quite  as 
much  in  evidence  as  in  that  of  this  country.  In  regard 
to  this  kind  of  literary  fare,  the  appetite  increases  with 
feeding,  if  I may  vary  an  old  French  proverb,  and  the 
sensational  journals  of  the  Japanese  capital  are  increasing 
in  demand  from  every  part  of  the  country. 

As  to  the  part  which  the  press  of  Japan  exercises  in 
moulding  public  opinion,  I confess  I have  not  formed  any 
clear  idea ; indeed,  it  is  one  upon  which  it  is  difficult  to 
come  to  any  conclusion.  How  far  the  press  there  moulds, 
and  how  far  it  follows  public  opinion  is  somewhat  pro- 
blematical. Be  that  as  it  may,  many  of  the  native  papers 
are  vigorously  and  effectively  written,  and  indeed  many 
eminent  men  in  Japan  have  been  either  directly  or  in- 
directly connected  with  the  press.  The  newspapers  of 


NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN 


205 


Japan  differ  in  this  respect  from  those  of  this  country — 
that  there  is  a press  law  there,  and  newspapers  are  in 
theory,  at  any  rate,  somewhat  more  hampered  in  their 
criticisms  and  the  publication  of  news  than  is  the  case 
here.  This  press  law  seems  to  have  irritated  the  English 
more  than  the  vernacular  press  of  Japan,  especially  during 
the  late  war.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  law,  a warning 
is  always  given  to  an  offending  newspaper  before  any 
official  action  is  taken.  The  English  journals  in  Japan 
have,  perhaps  not  unnaturally,  not  so  far  been  able  to 
divest  themselves  of  the  idea  that  they  have  still  extra- 
territorial rights,  and  are  consequently  justified  in  publish- 
ing any  criticisms  or  news  irrespective  of  the  provisions  of 
the  press  law. 

Newspapers  in  Japan  do  not  of  course  attain  such  large 
circulations  as  some  of  those  in  England.  I do  not 
think  there  is  any  paper  in  the  country  with  a circulation 
exceeding  100,000,  and  there  are  only  one  or  two  which 
reach  anything  like  that  figure.  Advertising  in  Japan 
in  papers  has  not  attained  the  same  importance  as  in 
this  country.  Of  course  all  the  journals,  whether  daily 
or  weekly,  have  a large  number  of  advertisements,  but 
the  non-advertisement  portion  of  the  paper  forms  a greater 
portion  of  the  whole  than  is  the  case  here.  It  may 
interest  some  of  my  readers  to  know  that  poetry  which 
has  long  been  tabooed  by  the  press  of  this  country  is  still 
a feature  in  that  of  Japan,  and  that  the  novel  “to  be 
continued  in  our  next,”  is  also  served  up  for  the  delectation 
of  Japanese  readers. 

A free  press  in  a free  country  is  no  doubt  an  admirable 
institution,  but  it  has  its  disadvantages.  I need  not 
enumerate  them,  as  my  readers  probably  know  them 
as  well  as  I do  myself  Indeed,  both  in  England  and 


206 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


America  of  late  years  we  have  had  plenty  of  object- 
lessons,  were  any  needed,  in  regard  to  these  disadvantages. 
“ The  yellow  press  ” is  a phrase  which  has  now  come 
into  general  use  to  denote  the  certain  kind  of  journalism 
which  lives  and  thrives  by  pandering  to  the  desire  that 
so  many  persons  in  this  world  have  for  morbid  sensa- 
tionalism and  the  publication  of  nauseating  and  shocking 
details.  People  who  have  appetites  of  this  kind  are  in 
need  of  having  them  perennially  gratified,  and  accordingly 
it  naturally  comes  about  that  the  conductors  of  journals 
such  as  I have  referred  to,  if  they  cannot  provide  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  sensationalism  true  or  partly  true, 
have  either  to  invent  it  or  exaggerate  some  perhaps 
innocent  or  innocuous  incident.  I am  sorry  to  say 
that  yellow  journalism  is  not  only  not  unknown  in  Japan, 
but  is  apparently  in  a very  flourishing  condition  there. 
I regret  the  fact  all  the  more  because  the  people  of  Japan 
are  not  yet  sufficiently  educated  or  enlightened  to  receive 
what  they  read  in  the  newspaper  in  a sceptical  spirit. 
That  educational  and  enlightening  process  is  only  effected 
by  a long  course  of  newspaper  reading.  Even  in  this 
country  we  can  remember  the  time  when  any  statement 
was  implicitly  believed  because  it  was  “in  the  papers.” 
Now  some  other  and  better  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
any  report  is  needed  than  the  publication  thereof  in  a 
newspaper.  Young  Japan  will  no  doubt  ere  long 
assimilate  this  fact,  and  when  it  does  the  yellow  press 
of  Japan  will  probably  find  its  clientile  a diminishing 
quantity.  I hope  my  readers  will  not  deduce  from 
these  remarks  that  I entertain,  on  the  whole,  a poor  opinion 
of  the  native  press  of  Japan.  Considering  the  diffi- 
culties it  has  had  to  contend  with,  I consider  that  the 
progress  it  has  made  during  the  comparatively  few  years 


NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN 


207 


it  has  been  in  existence  is  as  wonderful  as  anything 
in  the  country.  And  I am  furthermore  of  opinion  that 
the  influence  it  exercises  is,  on  the  whole,  a healthy  one.  It 
has  done  a great  work  in  the  education  of  the  mass  of 
the  Japanese  people  in  the  direction  of  taking  a broader 
view  of  life  and  teaching  them  that  there  is  a world 
outside  their  own  particular  locality  and  beyond  their  own 
country.  And  while  referring  to  the  newspaper  press  I 
may  also  give  a meed  of  praise  to  the  large  number 
of  journals  and  magazines  of  a literary,  scientific,  and 
religious  nature.  The  effect  of  these  ably  conducted 
periodicals  as  an  educational  influence  must  be  immense. 
The  number  of  them  is  gradually  growing,  and  the  support 
rendered  to  them  serves  to  show,  were  any  proof  needed, 
how  profoundly  interested  the  Japan  of  to-day  is  in 
all  those  questions,  whether  political,  scientific,  religious,  or 
literary,  which  are  not  the  possession  of  or  the  subject 
of  discussion  among  any  particular  nation  but  are 
exercising  the  minds  and  consciences  of  the  civilised 
world. 

One  pleasing  feature  of  the  native  press  of  Japan  I 
cannot  help  referring  to,  and  that  is  the  friendly  sentiments 
which  it  almost  invariably  expresses  in  regard  to  Great 
Britain.  As  I have  before  remarked,  it  was  this  country 
which  in  some  degree  influenced  at  first  the  Japanese  press. 
I am  pleased  that  of  late  at  any  rate,  since  the  somewhat 
heated  agitation  in  reference  to  the  revision  of  the  treaties 
has  come  to  an  end,  its  tone  has  been  almost  universally 
friendly  to  this  country,  and  its  approval  of  the  alliance 
between  Japan  and  Great  Britain  was  not  only  unanimous 
but  enthusiastic. 

The  English  newspapers  in  Japan  are  still,  as  they  have 
always  been,  ably  conducted  journals.  Captain  Brinkley, 


208 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  editor  of  one  of  them,  is  a great  authority  on  every- 
thing connected  with  Japan,  and  the  paper  he  edits  is 
worthy  of  all  that  is  best  in  English  journalism.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  the 
English  press  in  Japan  exercises  little  or  no  influence 
outside  the  immediate  circle  it  represents.  It  very 
naturally  looks  at  everything,  or  almost  everything,  not 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Japanese  but  from  that 
of  the  foreigner  in  Japan.  It  may  be  truthfully  averred 
of  the  foreign  press  that,  considered  as  a whole,  it  has  never 
done  anything  or  attempted  to  do  anything  to  break  down 
the  barriers  caused  by  racial  differences.  The  European 
press  in  Japan  has  in  tone  always  been  distinctly  anti- 
Japanese,  and  the  sentiments  which  it  has  expressed 
and  the  vigorous,  not  to  say  violent,  language  in  which 
those  sentiments  have  been  expressed  has  undoubtedly 
in  the  past  occasioned  much  bitterness  of  feeling  among 
the  Japanese  people  or  that  portion  of  it  which  either  read 
or  heard  of  those  sentiments.  The  characteristics  or 
idiosyncracies  of  the  people  of  Japan  were  either 
exaggerated  or  misrepresented,  and  there  were  not 
unnaturally  reprisals  quite  as  vigorous  in  the  native 
newspapers.  During  the  war  with  China,  for  example, 
the  attitude  of  the  European  press  was  exasperating 
to  a degree — that  is,  exasperating  to  the  Japanese  people. 
There  were  journals  which  avowedly  took  the  part  of 
China  and  expressed  a desire  for  China’s  success.  The 
victories  of  Japan  in  the  course  of  the  war  were  sneered 
at  and  at  first  belittled.  Subsequently,  when  the  success 
of  Japan  was  self-evident,  it  was  suggested  by  some  of 
these  newspapers  that  she  was  suffering  from  swelled  head 
and  was  in  need  of  being  put  in  her  place  and  kept  there. 
And,  accordingly,  when  certain  of  the  European  Powers 


NEWSPAPERS  IN  JAPAN 


209 


stepped  in  and  deprived  Japan  of  the  fruits  of  her  victories, 
the  action  of  those  Powers  was  applauded,  and  the 
undoubted  sympathy  of  the  English  people  in  England 
with  Japan  in  the  matter  was  derided  by  English  editors 
in  Japan  as  mere  maudlin  sentimentality.  Language 
of  this  kind  occasioned  deep  resentment  among  the  people 
of  the  country.  The  foreign  press  is  now,  I am  glad 
to  say,  saner,  inasmuch  as  it  to  some  extent  recognises 
facts  and  the  trend  of  events,  but  I fear  it  even  still  is 
for  the  most  part  representative  of  a community  which 
regards  the  Japanese  from  the  standpoint  that  most 
Europeans  in  the  Far  East  regard  the  Eastern  races 
with  whom  they  are  brought  in  contact.  The  position  of 
the  English  papers  in  Japan  has,  I should  say,  been 
considerably  affected  of  recent  years  by  the  development 
of  the  vernacular  press.  Twenty-five  years  or  so  ago  they 
were  practically  the  only  organs  that  voiced  public 
opinion  of  any  kind  in  the  country.  Now  they  only 
voice  the  opinion  of  a section  of  the  foreign  community. 
A reference  to  a quarter  of  a century  ago  brings  up 
memories  of  a gentleman  connected  to  some  extent  with 
the  newspaper  press  in  Japan  of  those  days.  I refer  to  the 
late  Mr.  Wergman,  who  owned  and  edited  and  filled — I 
am  not  quite  certain  he  did  not  print — that  somewhat 
extraordinary  journal,  the  Yokohama  Punch.  It 
appeared  at  uncertain  intervals,  and  it  dealt  both  in 
print  and  illustration  with  various  members  of  the  foreign 
community  in  Yokohama  and  its  neighbourhood  with  a 
vigour  and  freedom,  not  to  say  licence,  which  would 
now  hardly  be  tolerated.  Its  proprietor  is  long  since  dead, 
and  so  I believe  is  the  journal  which  he  owned  and  whose 
fitful  appearances  used  to  create  such  a mild  excitement 
among  the  foreign  community  in  Yokohama. 

p 


210 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


The  functions  of  the  press  as  a mirror  of  the  times, 
as  a censor  of  men  and  things,  and  as  a guide  and  a leader 
of  public  opinion  are  of  considerable  importance.  As 
I have  before  remarked  the  press  of  Japan  is  at  present 
if  not  in  its  infancy  at  any  rate  in  its  youth.  It  is 
accordingly  ebullient,  energetic,  optimistic.  Time  will  no 
doubt  correct  many  of  its  failings.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
I certainly  am  of  opinion  that,  considering  everything, 
it  has  attained  a wonderful  degree  of  development,  that 
it  has  reached  a position  of  great  importance  in  the 
country  as  an  educational  and  enlightening  influence,  and 
that  all  who  wish  well  to  Japan  may  look  upon  its 
future  with  hope.  It  will  no  doubt  play  an  important  part 
as  the  years  roll  by  in  the  development  of  the  country  and 
in  the  holding  up  before  the  people  of  worthy  ideals  in 
reference  to  economic  conditions,  material  progress,  and 
the  conservation  of  the  prestige  and  security  of  the 
Japanese  Empire. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


JAPANESE  MORALITY 

IN  the  Preface  I remarked  that  Japanese  morality  was  a 
thorny  subj’ect.  I use  the  word  morality  in  its  now 
generally  accepted  rather  than  in  its  absolutely  correct 
meaning.  Morality,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  practice  of 
moral  duties  apart  from  religion  or  doctrine ; it  treats  of 
actions  as  being  right  or  wrong — is,  in  brief,  ethics.  The 
old  “ morality  ” play,  for  example,  was  not,  as  some  people 
seem  to  suppose,  especially  concerned  with  the  relations  of 
the  sexes ; it  was  a drama  in  which  allegorical  represen- 
tations of  all  the  virtues  and  vices  were  introduced  as 
dramatis  personcz.  However,  words,  like  everything  else 
in  this  world,  change  their  meaning,  and,  though  the 
dictionary  interpretation  of  morality  is,  as  I have  stated  it, 
colloquially  at  any  rate,  the  word  has  now  come  for  the 
most  part  to  signify  sexual  conduct,  and  it  is  in  that  sense, 
as  I have  said,  I use  it. 

The  subject  of  the  morality  of  the  Japanese  is  one  that 
has  been  much  discussed  for  many  years  past,  and  accord- 
ingly is  one  in  regard  to  which  it  may  be  urged  that  there 
is  little  or  nothing  more  to  be  said.  I am  not  of  that 
opinion.  In  the  first  place,  much  of  the  discussion  has 

been  simply  the  mere  assertions  of  men,  or  sometimes  of 

211 


212 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


women,  who  either  did  not  have  the  opportunity,  or  else 
had  not  the  inclination,  to  investigate  matters  for  them- 
selves, and  were  therefore  largely  dependent  on  the  hear- 
say evidence  of  not  always  unprejudiced  persons.  Or  they 
sometimes  jumped  to  very  pronounced  and  erroneous 
conclusions  from  extremely  imperfect  observation  or 
information.  Let  me  take  as  an  example  in  point,  a lady, 
now  dead,  who  wrote  many  charming  books  of  travel — the 
late  Mrs.  Bishop,  better  known  as  Miss  Bird.  In  her 
journeyings  through  the  country  Miss  Bird  relates  in 
“ Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,”  that  she  passed  through  a 
wide  street  in  which  the  houses  were  large  and  handsome 
and  open  in  front.  Their  highly  polished  floors  and 
passages,  she  remarks,  looked  like  still  water,  the  kake- 
monos, or  wall  pictures,  on  their  side-walls  were  extremely 
beautiful,  and  their  mats  were  very  fine  and  white.  There 
were  large  gardens  at  the  back  with  fountains  and  flowers, 
and  streams,  crossed  by  light  stone  bridges,  sometimes 
flowed  through  the  houses.  The  lady,  who  was  on  the 
look-out  for  a resting-place,  not  unnaturally  expressed  a 
desire  to  put  up  at  one  of  these  delightful  sylvan  retreats, 
but  her  native  attendant  informed  her  that  was  impossible, 
as  they  were  kashitsukeyas,  or  tea-houses  of  a disrepu- 
table character.  Miss  Bird,  on  the  strength  of  this  infor- 
mation, thought  it  incumbent  upon  herself  to  pronounce 
the  somewhat  sweeping  judgment  that  “ there  is  much 
even  on  the  surface  to  indicate  vices  which  degrade  and 
enslave  the  manhood  of  Japan.”  Such  a statement  is,  of 
course,  the  merest  clap-trap,  but  even  were  it  true,  it 
might  be  permissible  to  remark  that  if  vice  exists  it  is 
surely  better  for  it  to  be  on  than  beneath  the  surface. 
Such  vice  as  does  exist  in  Japan  is,  in  my  opinion,  dis- 
tinctly on  the  surface,  and  I have  no  hesitation  in 


JAPANESE  MORALITY 


213 


describing  the  morals  of  the  Japanese  people  to  be,  on  the 
whole,  greatly  superior  to  those  of  Western  nations. 

There  can,  I think,  be  no  question  that  a large  number 
of  European  people  have  formed  their  estimate  of  Japanese 
women  either  from  a visit  to  a comic  opera  such  as  “ The 
Geisha,”  or  from  a perusal  of  a book  like  Pierre  Loti’s 
fascinating  work,  “ Madame  Chrysantheme.”  This  is  in 
effect  the  story  of  a liaison  between  a man  and  a Japanese 
girl  of  the  lower  classes,  with,  of  course,  a large  amount  of 
local  colouring,  and  rendered  generally  charming  by  the 
writer’s  brilliant  literary  style.  Unfortunately,  that  large 
number  of  Europeans  who  have  never  visited  Japan  have 
taken  the  French  academician’s  study  of  a girl  of  a certain 
class  as  a life  picture  of  the  typical  Japanese  woman  who 
is,  accordingly,  deemed  to  be  more  or  less,  to  use  an 
accepted  euphemism,  a person  of  easy  virtue.  Nothing 
could,  of  course,  be  more  erroneous,  no  conclusion  further 
from  the  truth.  The  remarks  of  Mr.  Arthur  Diosy  in  his 
book,  “ The  New  Far  East,”  on  this  head  are  so  much  to 
the  point  in  reference  to  the  utter  misconception  of  even 
many  visitors  to  Japan  in  the  matter  of  the  chastity  of  the 
average  Japanese  women  that  I venture  to  transcribe 
them : “ Has  it  not  been  repeated  to  him  (the  globe- 
trotter) that  these  people  have  no  conception  of  virtue  or 
of  modesty?  So  he  frequently  treats  the  maids  at  the 
inn,  the  charming  human  humming-birds  who  wait  upon 
him  at  the  tea-house,  and  the  Geisha  summoned  to 
entertain  him,  with  a cavalier  familiarity  that  would 
infallibly  lead  to  his  summary  expulsion  from  any  well- 
regulated  hotel  or  public-house,  or  other  places  of  public 
entertainment  at  home,  did  he  dare  to  show  such  want  of 
respect  to  a chambermaid  or  to  one  of  the  haughty  fair 
ones  serving  at  a bar.  He  means  no  harm  in  nine  cases 


214 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


out  of  ten  ; he  has  been  told  that  Japanese  girls  don’t 
mind  what  you  say  to  them,  and  as  to  the  tea-house  girls, 
well,  they  are  no  better  than  they  should  be  . . . but  they 
are  good  little  women,  as  capable  of  guarding  their  virtue 
as  any  in  the  world,  and  it  saddens  one  to  think  how  often 
they  endure,  from  a feeling  of  consideration  for  the 
foreigner  who  does  not  know  any  better,  they  pityingly 
think,  cavalier  treatment  they  would  not  submit  to  from 
a Japanese.” 

Having  said  so  much  I feel  I am  free  to  admit  that  a 
somewhat  different  standard  of  morality  does  obtain  in 
Japan  to  that  which  exists,  or  is  supposed  to  exist,  among 
Occidental  nations.  After  all,  morality  is  to  some  extent 
a matter  of  convention,  and  a people  must,  I suggest,  be 
judged  rather  by  the  way  in  which  it  lives  up  to  its 
standard  than  by  the  standard  itself,  which  among  some 
Western  nations  is  not  always  strictly  observed.  The 
whole  subject  of  morality  between  the  sexes  is  one  upon 
which  a portly  volume  might  be  written.  The  sexual 
relations  have  been  affected  by  many  circumstances,  some 
of  them  entirely  conventional  and  having  little  or  nothing 
to  do  with  morality  as  such,  while  poetry  and  romance  and 
sentiment  have  been  allowed  to  complicate,  and  still  render 
difficult  a dispassionate  consideration  of  the  whole  matter. 
Macaulay  in  one  of  his  essays  has  observed  that  “ the 
moral  principle  of  a woman  is  frequently  more  impaired 
by  a single  lapse  from  virtue  than  that  of  a man  by  twenty 
years  of  intrigue.”  He  explains  this  seeming  paradox  by 
asserting  that  “ a vice  sanctioned  by  the  general  opinion 
is  merely  a vice,  while  a vice  condemned  by  the  general 
opinion  produces  a pernicious  effect  on  the  whole 
character.”  “ One,”  says  Macaulay,  “ is  a local  malady, 
the  other  is  a constitutional  taint.”  I have  quoted  the 


JAPANESE  MORALITY 


215 


famous  historian  in  this  connection  because  his  observa- 
tions are,  I think,  illustrative  of  my  contention,  viz.,  that 
morality  is  largely  a matter  of  convention,  sanctioned  or 
condemned  by  what  Macaulay  terms  “ the  general 
opinion.” 

I frankly  admit  that  prostitution  has  never  been 
regarded  in  Japan  as  it  is,  or  is  affected  to  be,  in  this  and 
other  European  countries.  In  ancient  days  the  public 
women  of  the  capital  and  the  large  towns  were  as  famous 
as  in  Athens  of  old,  and  were  regarded  as  amongst  the 
best  educated  and  best  mannered  of  their  sex.  The 
Japanese  have  ever  looked  upon  prostitution  as  what  is 
termed  a necessary  evil,  and  they  have  always  sought  to 
regulate  and  supervise  it  with  a view  of  obviating  those 
evils,  terrible  in  their  consequences,  which  are  frequently 
the  result  of  permitting  it  to  go  unchecked.  And  accord- 
ingly the  Yoshiwara  has  long  been  a recognised  institution 
in  every  considerable  town  in  the  country,  the  Yoshiwara 
being  that  particular  portion  of  the  town  in  which  pros- 
titutes are  alone  permitted  to  reside.  There  is,  so  far  as 
I know,  no  prostitution  outside  the  Yoshiwara,  and  the 
inmates  thereof  are  subject  to  a rigorous  supervision  and 
inspection,  medical  and  otherwise,  which  has  produced 
excellent  results.  The  inmates  of  the  Yoshiwara  are  not 
recruited  as  are  the  similar  class  in  the  West.  Here  the 
“ unfortunate  ” usually  plies  her  trade  as  a deryiier  ressort. 
In  a moment  of  temptation  she  has  “gone  wrong,”  as  the 
phrase  goes,  the  fact  becomes  public,  she  is  too  often  cold- 
shouldered  and  hustled  even  by  her  immediate  relations, 
and  her  downward  progress  is  swift  and  certain.  Nor  is 
there  for  her,  except  in  rare  cases,  any  chance  of  rehabilita- 
tion. She  is  too  hopeless  to  exclaim  “ Resurgam  ! ” and  if 
in  an  optimistic  frame  of  mind  she  did  so  purpose  she 


216 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


would  find  the  consummation  difficult  if  not  impossible. 
She  is,  in  a word,  on  the  way  to  irretrievable  ruin  and  a 
shameful  end,  and  she  knows  it. 

Such  is,  as  I have  said,  not  the  case  in  Japan.  The  lot 
of  the  prostitute  there  has  never  been  regarded  with  the 
loathing  which  it  excites  in  this  country.  Houses  of  ill- 
fame  were,  and  are  still,  recruited  not  from  those  whose 
previous  lapse  from  virtue  has  rendered  no  other  mode  of 
livelihood  possible  than  that  from  immorality,  but  by  those 
whom  stern  necessity  has  driven  to  the  step  as  a means 
either  of  supporting  themselves  or  of  assisting  parents  or 
their  near  relatives.  Such  a sacrifice — a terrible  sacrifice,  I 
admit — has  in  Japan  never  been  regarded  with  horror,  but 
as  in  a sense  laudable.  The  finger  of  scorn  must  not  be 
pointed  at  a woman  who  has  voluntarily  sacrificed  what 
women  hold  most  dear,  not  from  lust  or  from  the  desire  of 
leading  a gay  life  or  pampering  or  adorning  the  body,  but 
perhaps  to  save  father  or  kin  from  ruin  or  starvation.  The 
Yoshiwara  has,  of  course,  other  recruits,  but  in  the  main 
its  inmates  are  not  the  victims  of  lust  but  of  self-sacrifice. 
There  is  too  often  a whole  tragedy  in  the  story  of  a 
Japanese  girl  of  this  kind,  and  it  is  deplorable  when  the 
self-righteous  European  comes  along  and  points  the  finger 
of  scorn  at  her.  I am  aware  that  though  not  despised,  as 
in  this  country,  the  lot  of  the  inmate  of  the  Yoshiwara  is 
often,  if  not  always,  a horrible  one.  She  is,  as  a rule,  sold, 
or  sells  herself,  for  a lump  sum  of  money  to  which  amount 
is  added  the  cost  of  her  outfit,  usually  as  much  as  the  price 
paid  to  the  woman  or  her  relatives.  Until  this  amount  was 
worked  off — and  the  accounts  were,  of  course,  not  over 
accurately  kept — the  woman  was  to  all  intents  the  chattel 
of  her  master.  This  has,  undoubtedly,  for  many  centuries 
been  the  custom  of  the  country.  I am  glad,  however,  to 


JAPANESE  MORALITY 


217 


be  able  to  state  that  quite  recently  the  highest  court  in 
Japan  has  decided  that,  whatever  custom  may  have 
decreed,  the  law  gives,  and  will  give,  no  sanction  to  any 
such  custom.  A girl  confined  in  the  Yoshiwara  was 
forcibly  taken  away  therefrom.  The  owner  of  the  house 
in  which  she  resided,  as  her  debt  had  not  been  liquidated, 
considered  he  had  a lien  upon  her,  and  he  invoked  the  aid 
of  the  law  to  assist  him  to  assert  what  he  considered  to  be 
his  rights  and  retake  possession  of  the  girl.  The  case  was 
strenuously  fought  and  taken  to  several  courts,  with  the 
result  I have  stated.  This  decision  will  probably  have  far- 
reaching  effects  and  declaring,  as  it  does,  that  the  inmates 
of  the  Yoshiwara  are  not  slaves  or  chattels,  it  is  to  be 
cordially  welcomed. 

The  assertion  of  Miss  Bird,  already  referred  to,  that  the 
manhood  of  Japan  is  enslaved  and  degraded  by  vice  is 
one  which  I have  no  hesitation  in  describing  as  gross 
exaggeration.  Vice,  of  course,  there  is  in  Japan,  vice  of 
various  kinds  and  degrees,  but  the  ordinary  Japanese  man 
is  not,  in  my  opinion,  nearly  so  immoral  as  the  average 
European.  The  chastity  of  the  Japanese  woman  I place 
still  higher.  The  fact,  already  stated,  that  the  inmates  of 
the  Yoshiwara  are  not  generally  recruited  from  those  who 
have  lapsed  from  virtue  might  be  urged  in  proof  of  this. 
Nor  is  the  fact  that  prostitution  is  not  in  Japan  regarded 
with  the  same  loathing  as  in  this  country,  in  my  opinion, 
to  be  taken  as  any  evidence  of  an  immoral  tone.  The 
ideas  that  obtain  on  the  matter,  in  Japan  at  any  rate, 
hold  out  the  possibility  of  moral  redemption  for  the 
inmates  of  the  Yoshiwara,  and  as  a matter  of  fact  many 
women  in  Japan  who,  through  the  force  of  compulsion, 
have  entered  this  place,  frequently  marry,  and  marry 
well,  and  subsequently  live  absolutely  chaste  lives.  The 


218 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


standard  of  morality  among  the  married  women  of  Japan 
is,  I may  remark,  high,  and  is  rarely  lowered. 

I hope  I shall  not  shock  my  readers  if  I remark  that 
I consider  the  stringent  regulations  that  exist  in  Japan  as 
to  the  supervision  of  the  Yoshiwara  in  many  respects 
admirable.  It  will  probably  surprise  many  persons  to 
learn  that  the  high  state  of  organisation  in  regard  to 
everything  connected  with  the  superintendence  of  these 
places,  as  also  the  development  of  lock  hospitals,  is 
largely  due  to  the  zeal  and  exertions  of  the  late  Dr.  G. 
Birnie  Hill,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  who  was  for  many  years 
lent  by  the  Admiralty  to  the  Japanese  Government  for 
that  purpose.  Under  his  auspices  a stringent  system  of 
medical  supervision  was  organised,  which  has  been  attended 
with  excellent  results  in  the  direction  of  stamping  out 
and  obviating  diseases  which,  I may  observe,  are  of  foreign 
importation.  I know  that  the  existence  of  any  system  of 
medical  inspection  will,  in  the  estimate  of  a large  number 
of  estimable  men  and  women  in  this  country,  be  regarded 
as  proof  positive  of  the  immorality  of  the  Japanese. 
“ We  mustn’t  recognise  vice,”  is  their  contention.  I am 
of  opinion,  on  the  contrary,  that  we  should  either  recog- 
nise vice  and  restrict,  restrain,  and  regulate  it,  or  else 
make  vice  illegal,  as  the  Puritans  did,  and  fine  or 
imprison  both  men  and  women  addicted  to  it.  I could 
understand  either  of  these  two  courses,  but  I must  con- 
fess that  I altogether  fail  to  fathom  the  state  of  mind  of 
those  persons  who  adopt  neither  opinion,  but  either  assert 
or  infer  that  in  the  name  of  religion,  morality,  modesty, 
and  many  other  commendable  things,  we  should  permit 
our  streets  and  thoroughfares  to  be  infested  by  women 
plying  their  immoral  trade  with  all  the  resultant  con- 
sequences. 


THK  KTKRNAI,  FEMININE 


JAPANESE  MOKALITY 


219 


As  I stated  at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter,  a 
nation  should  be  judged  not  only  by  its  standard  of 
morality  but  by  the  degree  in  which  it  lives  up  to  or 
falls  short  of  that  standard.  Judged  by  this,  surely  the 
fairest,  the  only  fair,  rule,  Japan  has  every  reason  to  be 
considered  a moral  country.  Those  shocking  crimes 
which  appear  to  be  the  outcome  of  either  the  aberra- 
tion or  the  inversion  of  the  sexual  instincts  are  almost 
unknown  there.  Nor  do  I consider  that  the  public 
estimate  of  prostitution  on  the  whole  makes  for  im- 
morality. If  an  evil  exist,  and  prostitution  is  un- 
doubtedly an  evil,  it  is  surely  better  to  regulate  it  than 
to  affect  to  be  oblivious  of  it.  The  Japanese  attitude 
towards  prostitution  at  any  rate  leaves  a door  open 
for  the  woman  who  has,  from  whatever  the  reason,  lapsed 
from  the  paths  of  virtue  to  return  thereto.  This  appears 
to  my  mind  to  be  a more  satisfactory  state  of  things  than 
the  continual  harrying  and  worrying  of  prostitutes  in  the 
name  of  indignant  virtue  and  the  driving  of  them  on  the 
streets.  The  aspect  of  the  great  thoroughfares  of  London, 
especially  by  night,  does  not  give  the  Oriental  visitor 
thereto  a high  idea  of  English  morality.  It  is,  never- 
theless, an  extraordinary  fact  that  the  Englishman  or  the 
Englishwoman  who  has  mayhap  lived  in  London  most  of 
his  or  her  life,  when  he  or  she  visits  Japan  in  the  course 
of,  perhaps,  “ a round  the  world  trip  ” in  ninety  days, 
and  learns  that  there  is  in  each  Japanese  town  a Yoshi- 
wara,  the  inmates  of  which  are  subject  to  supervision  and 
regulation,  lifts  up  his  or  her  hands  in  holy  horror,  returns 
home  with  a virtuous  indignation,  and  has  no  hesitation 
in  henceforth  declaring,  whether  in  speech  or  writing,  that 
the  Japanese  are  a grossly  immoral  people. 

The  average  Japanese  is,  very  rightly  in  my  opinion. 


220 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


indignant  at  the  constant  assertions  of  writers,  well  or 
ill-informed,  that  his  country  is  essentially  immoral.  He 
is  not  only  indignant  but  astounded.  He  has,  if  he  has 
been  to  this  country,  seen  here  much  that  has  not  tended 
to  impress  him  with  the  belief  that  the  English  people 
are  themselves  in  a position  to  dogmatise  on  this  vexed 
question  of  morality.  He  is,  if  he  has  visited  the  great 
cities  and  towns  of  Great  Britain,  by  no  means  convinced 
that  the  action  of  Japan  in  establishing  a Yoshiwara 
whose  inmates  are  under  proper  supervision,  medical  and 
otherwise,  is  not  better  from  every  point  of  view,  that  of 
morality  included,  than  turning  loose  women  into  the 
streets  to  accost  every  passer-by  and  place  temptations 
in  the  way  of  youth.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Japanese 
who  has  not  left  his  own  country,  but  is  of  an  observant 
nature  and  of  a logical  disposition,  fails  to  comprehend 
why  the  European  in  Europe  should  dogmatise  upon  and 
affect  to  be  disgusted  with  what  he  terms  the  immorality 
of  the  Japanese.  The  Japanese  who  has  lived  all  his  life 
in  his  own  country  has  had  ample  opportunities  for  study- 
ing the  Europeans  resident  there,  and  I fear  he  has  not 
always  been  impressed  by  their  high  moral  tone  or  their 
ultra-moral  conduct.  I might  say  much  more  upon  that 
head,  but  I shall  refrain. 

I conclude  this  chapter  by  reiterating  the  expression  of 
my  belief  that  the  Japanese  are,  when  rightly  considered, 
a moral  people.  They  have  their  own  code  of  morals,  and 
they  act  up  to  it.  There  are  few  nations  of  whom  as 
much  could  be  said. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

JAPAN  AND  CHINA 

The  results  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan 
seem  to  have  caused  a large  number  of  persons 
to  work  themselves  into  a state  of  incipient  panic  regard- 
ing what  has  been  graphically,  if  not  quite  correctly, 
termed  “ the  yellow  peril.”  Japan,  a nation  of  some 
47,000,000  people,  had  thrown  down  the  gauntlet  and 
totally  defeated,  both  by  land  and  sea,  one  of  the  great 
military  Powers  of  the  world.  Japan  had  done  all  this 
as  a result  of  some  quarter  of  a century  spent  in 
modelling  and  training  her  Army  and  Navy  on  European 
lines,  and  adopting  European  arms  of  destruction.  Of 
course,  so  argued  the  panic-mongers,  China  must  be 
impressed  by  such  an  object-lesson — China,  which  has 
for  so  many  years  past  been,  and  is  still  being,  squeezed 
by  the  European  Powers.  The  result  of  Japan’s  triumph 
would  inevitably  be,  so  we  were  asked  to  believe,  that 
China  would  invite  the  former  to  organise  the  Chinese 
Army  and  Navy  on  Japanese  lines.  As  the  outcome 
thereof,  a nation,  not  of  forty,  but  of  four  hundred 
millions,  would  be  trained  to  arms,  and,  if  the  Chinese 
raw  material  proved  as  good  as  the  Japanese,  a nation 
so  powerful,  if  it  proceeded  West  on  conquest  bent, 

would  carry  everything  before  it,  and,  unlike  the  last 

•221 


222 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Eastern  invaders  of  Europe,  the  Turks,  would  be  un- 
likely to  be  stopped  on  its  onward  course  at  Vienna. 
The  German  Emperor  was  amongst  those  who  have 
voiced  the  cry  of  “ the  yellow  peril.”  He  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  cast  himself  for  the  part  of 
John  Sobieski,  with  Berlin  instead  of  Vienna  as  the 
decisive  battle-ground.  The  persons  who  have  so  argued 
and  have  attempted  to  raise  this  silly  cry  of  “ the  yellow 
peril,”  with  a view  of  alarming  Europe  were,  I think, 
merely  the  victims  of  an  exuberant  imagination.  Their 
facts  have  no  existence  save  in  the  realms  of  fancy,  and 
as  they  reasoned  from  faulty  premises  on  imperfect  or 
erroneous  information,  their  conclusions  were,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  not  only  inaccurate,  but  absurdly 
ludicrous.  There  is  no  “ yellow  peril,”  no  prospect  what- 
ever of  it,  either  present  or  remote. 

The  attitude  of  China,  that  vast  though  heterogeneous 
nation,  is,  since  the  close  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  I 
admit,  one  of  the  most  intense  interest.  Some  persons 
may  consider  that  in  a book  about  Japan  any  other 
than  a passing  reference  to  China  is  out  of  place,  and 
that,  moreover,  for  me  to  deal  with  the  attitude  of  China 
is  to  wander  into  political  regions — a peripatetic  pro- 
ceeding I deprecated  in  the  Preface.  I am  of  opinion, 
however,  that  it  is  impossible  to  thoroughly  understand 
Japan  and  to  appreciate  the  attitude  of  that  country 
to  the  Western  Powers  without  some  remarks  respect- 
ing the  present  and  prospective  relations  of  China  and 
Japan.  I also  think  that  some  consideration  of  this  bogey 
of  “ the  yellow  peril  ” is  not  only  out  of  place  but  indis- 
pensable in  order  to  form  a correct  idea  of  the  precise 
effect  of  recent  events  in  the  Far  East  and  the  possible 
outcome  of  them. 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


223 


To  any  person  who  has  closely  studied  Far  Eastern 
problems  the  attitude  of  China  since  the  close  of  the 
war  between  Japan  and  Russia  is  in  no  way  surprising ; 
the  forces  that  have  long  been  steadily  at  work  in  that 
ancient  Empire  are  now  only  attaining  any  degree  of 
development.  There  is  nothing,  in  my  opinion,  in  the 
history  of  the  world  more  dramatic  than  the  way  in  which 
China  has  waited.  That  country  is  now,  I believe,  about 
to  show  that  the  waiting  policy  has  been  a sound  one,  and 
I am  confident  it  will  eventually  prove  triumphant.  In 
1900  I expressed  in  print  the  opinion  that  not  a single 
acre  of  Japanese  soil  would  ever  be  permitted  to  be 
annexed  by  a foreign  country  ; I spoke  of  the  policy 
of  China  for  the  Chinese,  and  remarked  that  that  prin- 
ciple and  policy  had  been  repeated  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  that  vast  Empire,  and  had  been  absorbed, 
as  it  were,  into  the  very  marrow  of  its  people.  It  is  in 
many  respects  interesting  and  curious,  indeed  almost 
comical,  the  manner  in  which  that  lesson  has  been 
driven  home  upon  the  Chinese.  Russia  has  always  been 
to  them  a powerful,  persistent,  and  aggressive  neighbour, 
a more  formidable  aggressor,  indeed,  because  perhaps 
nearer,  than  any  of  the  other  Powers  of  Europe,  whom  I 
am  sorry  to  say  China  has  always  looked  upon  very  much 
as  the  substantial  householder  regards  the  burglar.  Now 
that  Japan  has  tried  conclusions  with  Russia  and  has 
soundly  thrashed  the  latter,  great,  slumbering  China, 
proud,  conservative,  but  supremely  conscious  of  its  latent 
resources,  has  been  waking  up.  The  Chinese,  as  a matter 
of  fact,  have  very  little  veneration,  respect,  or  esteem,  for 
their  Japanese  neighbours.  The  former  plume  themselves 
on  being  the  aristocrats  of  the  East,  and  they  reason,  with 
some  show  of  plausibility,  that  if  the  upstart  Japanese 


224 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


have  been  able  to  so  thoroughly  rout  the  Russian  forces 
the  potential  possibilities  of  China  on  the  warpath  are 
enormous.  Every  thoughtful  student  of  the  East  has  looked 
forward  to  what  I may  term  the  Japanisation  of  China  as 
one  of  the  inevitable  results  of  the  recent  conflict  in  the 
Far  East,  To  a certain  extent  the  Japanisation  of  China 
has  commenced,  but  at  the  same  time  one  cannot  be 
oblivious  of  the  fact  that  the  Chinese,  with  their  tradi- 
tions and  sense  of  self-importance,  have  not  the  slightest 
intention  of  slavishly  following  in  the  lead  of  those  islanders 
whom  they  have  always  contemned,  but  mean  to  strike 
out  a line  for  themselves.  If  what  we  believe  to  be 
civilisation  is  to  be  developed  in  China,  it  will  be  de- 
veloped by  the  Chinese  themselves.  If  they  are  going 
to  possess  railways,  telegraphs,  telephones,  and  all  the 
machinery  of  that  material  advancement  which  we  call 
progress,  and  sometimes  civilisation,  the  Chinese  them- 
selves will  be  the  importers  and  adapters  and,  in  due 
course,  the  manufacturers  thereof. 

Now  that  the  great  fight  in  the  Far  East  is  over,  it 
certainly  looks  as  if  the  Chinese  at  last  realised  the  fact 
that  development  is  an  inevitable  necessity.  The  master- 
spirits in  the  country  have  assuredly  come  to  the  conclusion, 
possibly  with  regret,  that  China  can  no  longer  remain  in 
that  delightful  state  of  isolation  which  permitted  every 
man  in  the  Empire  to  spend  the  arc  of  his  life,  from  his 
cradle  to  his  grave,  in  a state  of  restful  security.  China  is, 
in  spite  of  herself,  and  certainly  against  the  inclinations  of 
the  mass  of  the  populace,  being  swept  into  the  maelstrom 
of  struggle  now  that  the  people,  or  rather  their  leaders, 
realise  the  position.  Their  attitude  seems  to  me  to  be 
magnificent.  If  railways  have  to  be  made  they  will  be 
made  by  the  Chinese ; the  concessions  already  granted 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


225 


must — this  is  the  universal  feeling — be  bought  back,  even 
at  a profit,  from  those  who  have  acquired  them,  by  the 
Chinese  themselves.  Not  one  new  concession  must,  on 
any  pretence  whatever,  ever  again  be  granted  to  a foreigner. 
And  if  this  Western  civilisation  is  to  be  forced  upon  the 
Chinese,  they  intend  to  take  it  with  all  its  attendant 
precautions.  They  are  naturally  a peaceful  and  unaggres- 
sive  people,  but  they  have  grasped  the  fact  that,  as  a 
strong  man  armed  is  in  the  best  position  to  safeguard  his 
house,  however  peaceful  his  individual  proclivities  may  be, 
so  too,  if  a nation  is  to  defend  its  territory  and  its  terri- 
torial wealth  against  spoliation,  it  must  be  armed  for  that 
purpose. 

For  many  years  past  Great  Britain  and  France  and 
other  countries  have  been  sending  missionaries  to  China 
to  expound  to  the  Chinese  people  those  sublime  doctrines 
enunciated  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  Chinese 
have  diagnosed,  from  the  acts  of  the  European  Powers 
generally  as  well  as  from  the  actions  of  individual 
Europeans  resident  in  China,  the  precise  value  to  be 
attached  to  Christianity.  For  purely  defensive  purposes 
China  will  have  almost  immediately  an  Army  which  has 
been  effectively  described  by  the  Times  correspondent  as 
being  able  to  relieve  the  European  Powers  of  any  anxiety 
respecting  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  People 
who  have  not  visited  the  P'ar  East,  and  who  entirely  derive 
their  opinions  and  information  in  regard  thereto  from  the 
newspapers,  cannot  possibly  realise  what  effect  the  policy 
of  the  European  Powers  has  had  upon  nations  like  China 
and  Japan.  A professedly  Christian  country  like  Great 
Britain  going  to  war  to  force  the  sale  of  opium  on  a people 
who  did  not  want  to  be  debauched ; a power  like  Germany 
annexing  Kiaochao  as  a golgotha  for  two  murdered  priests 
Q 


226 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


— proceedings  such  as  these,  and  there  have  been  many 
such  during  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years,  have  been  taken 
seriously  to  heart  by  the  Far  Eastern  races,  whether  in 
China  or  Japan.  All  the  time  the  Occidental  Powers, 
with  a total  lack  of  any  sense  of  humour,  have  persisted  in 
sending  missionaries  to  these  people  to  inculcate  doctrines 
which  are  the  very  antitheses  of  the  practices  of  European 
nations  to  these  people  whom  it  is  sought  to  convert.  It 
would  be,  in  my  opinion,  nothing  more  than  the  outcome 
of  eternal  justice  if  this  great  big,  old,  sleepy  China,  which 
has  been  for  so  many  years  pricked  and  prodded  and 
despoiled,  were  at  length  to  take  up  arms  for  a great 
revenge.  But  China,  if  my  prevision  be  correct,  is  going 
to  do  nothing  of  the  kind.  What  she  does  mean  to  do  is 
simply  to  keep  China  for  the  Chinese.  She  is  not,  as  so 
many  persons  imagined  and  still  imagine  would  be  the 
case,  going  to  be  led  as  a powerful  ox  with  a Japanese 
driver.  Chinese  students  are  in  hundreds  in  Japan,  learn- 
ing from  that  country  all  that  the  Japanese  have  acquired 
from  Europe.  Young,  alert,  capable  men  I found  them 
without  exception,  sucking  the  brains  of  all  that  is  best  in 
Japan  precisely  as  the  Japanese  have  sucked  the  brains  of 
all  that  is  best  in  Europe  for  their  own  objects  and  to 
their  own  advantage.  The  immediate  danger  in  China 
seems,  so  far  as  I can  judge,  to  be  that  the  anti-foreign 
feeling,  which  is  undoubtedly  intense  especially  in  the 
south  of  the  Empire,  may  come  to  a head  any  day  and 
prematurely  explode.  The  nincompoops  and  quidnuncs 
and  newspaper  men  ravenous  for  copy  who  prate  about  a 
“ yellow  peril  ” may,  in  this  latter  fact,  find  some  slight 
excuse  for  their  blatant  lucubrations.  There  is  no  real 
“ yellow  peril.”  Poor  old  China,  which  has  been  so  long 
slumbering,  is  just  rousing  herself  and  making  arrange- 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


227 


ments  for  defence  against  the  “ white  peril,”  materialistic 
civilisation,  and  misrepresented  Christianity. 

The  only  “ yellow  peril  ” that  I have  been  able  to 
diagnose  is  the  peril  to  the  trade  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  of  America  with  China — a peril  that  appears 
to  me  to  be  imminent.  That  Japan  intends  to  capture  a 
large,  indeed  the  largest,  proportion  of  that  trade  I am 
firmly  convinced.  That  she  will  succeed  in  effecting  her 
object  I have  not  the  slightest  doubt.  At  the  present 
moment  only  about  5 per  cent,  of  the  imports  into  China 
are  from  Japan,  the  remainder  being  either  from  India, 
Europe,  or  America.  Situated  in  close  contiguity  to 
China,  having  assimilated  everything  of  importance  not 
only  in  regard  to  the  employment  but  the  manufacture  of 
machinery  from  Europe  and  the  United  States,  possessing 
an  industrious  and  intelligent  population,  Japan  is  quite 
obviously  in  a magnificent  position  to  supply  China,  and 
supply  her  on  much  better  terms,  with  the  greater  number 
of  those  commodities  which  China  now  has  to  import 
either  from  Europe  or  America.  Japan,  as  I have  said, 
intends  to  lay  herself  out  to  capture  the  major  portion  of 
this  trade ; she  is  quite  justified  in  doing  so,  and  there  is 
every  reason  to  suppose  that  she  will  attain  her  object. 

That  the  Chinese  students  who  have  come  to  Japan  and 
are  flocking  there  month  by  month  in  increasing  numbers, 
with  a thirst  for  knowledge  and  a desire  to  assimilate  all 
those  Western  influences  and  ideas  and  aids  that  have 
placed  Japan  in  her  present  prominent  position  among  the 
nations,  when  they,  in  due  course,  return  to  their  own 
country,  will  of  a certainty  exercise  a considerable  influence 
therein,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  I also  feel  sure  that 
Japan  will  render  considerable  assistance  to  China  in 
regard  to  the  remodelling  and  reorganisation  of  the 


228 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Chinese  Army  and  Navy.  It  is  as  certain  as  anything 
in  this  uncertain  world  that  before  very  many  years  have 
elapsed  the  naval  and  military  forces  of  China  will  undergo 
as  great  a transformation  as  those  of  Japan  have  under- 
gone. I believe,  and  I may  say  that  this  belief  is  shared 
by  a number  of  naval  and  military  men  who  have  had 
practical  opportunities  for  forming  an  opinion  in  the 
matter,  that  the  raw  material  existing  in  China  for  the 
making  of  an  effective  and  efficient  Army  and  Navy  is  as 
good  as  that  in  Japan.  We  know  that  the  late  General 
Gordon,  who  had  excellent  opportunities  for  arriving  at  a 
sound  conclusion  in  the  matter,  expressed  himself  in  glow- 
ing terms  in  regard  to  the  capabilities  of  the  Chinaman  as 
a soldier  were  he  properly  trained,  organised,  and  officered. 
But  that  China,  any  more  than  Japan,  entertains  ambitious 
military  projects  I utterly  disbelieve.  The  only  aspiration 
of  China  as  regards  Europe  is — to  be  let  alone.  She  fears, 
as  she  has  every  reason  to  fear,  European  aggression.  She 
has  had  ample  experience  in  the  past  that  the  flimsiest 
pretexts  have  been  utilised  for  the  purpose  of  filching  her 
territory  and  exacting  from  her  pecuniary  fines  under  the 
name  of  indemnities.  We  know  by  a recent  incident  that 
the  indemnity  exacted  from  China  by  this  country  in 
respect  of  the  Boxer  rebellion  was  not  really  required  for 
the  ostensible  purposes  for  which  it  was  imposed.  A large 
proportion  of  it  lay  at  the  Bank  of  England  unappro- 
priated, and  eventually  was  attached  by  a rapacious 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  for  the  purpose  of  alleviating 
the  burdens  of  the  British  taxpayer.  China  is  determined 
to  have  no  more  incidents  such  as  this  in  the  future,  and 
the  Russo-Japanese  War  has  given  her  occasion  for  serious 
thought  in  the  matter  as  well  as  pointed  an  obvious  moral. 
As  a result  of  her  cogitations,  she  has  concluded  that  the 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


229 


most  effective  means  she  can  take  in  the  direction  of 
preserving  the  inviolability  of  her  territory  and  preventing 
the  exaction  of  periodical  monetary  tributes  on  the  part  of 
foreign  Powers,  is  to  establish  a strong  and  efficient  Army 
and  Navy.  As  a matter  of  fact,  I consider  that  in  so 
determining  China  is  acting  not  only  in  her  own  interests, 
but  in  the  interests  of  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe. 

Not  very  many  years  ago  that  excellent  sailor.  Lord 
Charles  Beresford,  wrote  a book  entitled,  somewhat  too 
previously,  “The  Break-up  of  China.”  In  selecting  a title 
for  his  work  Lord  Charles  without  doubt  voiced  the 
opinion  prevalent,  not  only  in  this  country  but  in  Europe, 
at  the  time  he  wrote  it.  The  statesmen  of  nearly  all  the 
foreign  Powers  then  seemed  to  have  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  scramble  for  China  was  imminent  and, 
utilising  their  experience  from  what  took  place  when  the 
scramble  for  Africa  was  effected  twenty  years  ago,  they 
began  apportioning  in  advance  the  territory  that  ought  to 
fall  to  their  lot.  In  this  matter,  however,  they  were  wofully 
mistaken  ; the  diplomatic  physicians  of  the  world  may 
have  diagnosed  the  symptoms  quite  accurately,  but  the 
patient  surprised  them  all  in  regard  to  the  course  of  the 
disease  and  her  recuperative  powers.  There  will  be  no 
“ break-up  ” of  China,  and  consequently  we  are  not  likely 
to  witness  any  scramble  for  China.  There  has  undoubtedly 
been  an  awakening  of  China,  an  awakening  to  her  danger, 
to  a sense  of  the  extent  to  which  her  interests  were 
imperilled.  She  wants,  as  I have  said,  to  be  severely  left 
alone,  and  she  is  determined  as  far  as  possible  to  effect 
that  consummation.  The  men  of  light  and  leading  in 
China  know  perfectly  well  that  they  cannot  now,  even  if 
they  would,  shut  their  country  against  European  trade, 
European  residents,  European  visitors.  They  are  pre- 


230 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


pared  to  accept  all  these,  but  they  will  not  have  European 
interference.  China  is  determined  to  work  out  her  own 
destiny  or  salvation,  call  it  which  you  will,  and  Japan  is 
both  willing  and  anxious  to  give  her  all  possible  assistance 
in  that  direction.  The  “ yellow  peril  ” bogey  is,  in  my 
opinion,  the  silliest  and  most  absurd  cry  that  has  ever 
been  put  forward  by  responsible  persons. 


CHAPTER  XX 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


IKE  everything  else  in  Japan,  the  status  and  position 


of  the  foreigner  have  been  materially  changed,  in 
fact  revolutionised,  of  recent  years.  When  the  country 
was,  in  the  first  instance,  opened  after  its  long  period 
of  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  treaties  were  signed 
with  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  France,  and  nearly 
all  the  other  European  Powers,  whereby  Japan  agreed  to 
open  seven  ports,  subsequently  known  as  “ treaty  ports,” 
to  foreign  trade  in  which  ports  foreigners  were  to  be 
permitted  to  reside  and  to  carry  on  their  business. 
Foreigners  were  at  the  same  time — not  by  the  wish  of 
the  Japanese  Government,  but  as  the  outcome  of  the 
pressure  put  upon  Japan  by  the  various  Powers — granted 
extra-territorial  rights,  that  is  to  say  they  were  exempt 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Japanese  courts  of  law.  This 
being  the  case  foreign  courts  were  constituted  in  Japan 
with  jurisdiction  over  the  subjects  of  the  nation  which 
set  up  the  court.  In  these  courts  foreigners  sued  and  were 
sued,  and  crimes  committed  by  and  against  foreigners 
were  tried.  As  regards  Great  Britain  a Supreme  Court 
for  China  and  Japan  was  constituted  whose  headquarters 
were  at  Shanghai.  There  were  Consular  Courts  and  a very 


231 


232 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


involved  kind  of  legal  procedure  generally  established, 
mostly  by  Order  in  Council,  which  I need  not  consider 
in  detail  as  it  is  now  effete.  There  was,  moreover,  as 
regards  Great  Britain  at  any  rate,  a Bar  practising  in  these 
courts,  one  member  of  which,  Mr.  F.  V.  Dickins,  is  justly 
remembered  not  for  his  forensic  but  for  his  literary  efforts 
in  the  direction  of  depicting  the  inner  life  of  the  Japanese 
people.  Into  these  foreign  courts  all  the  jargon,  the  quips 
and  quibbles  of  English  law  were  imported.  These  courts 
were,  not  unnaturally,  an  eyesore  to  the  Japanese  people. 
I may  observe  in  passing  that  these  extra-territorial  courts 
still  exist  in  China,  and  though  the  Supreme  Court  of 
China  and  Japan  has  been  shorn  of  that  part  of  its  title 
which  refers  to  Japan  it  remains,  and  is  likely  for  some 
time  longer  to  remain,  the  supreme  legal  tribunal  of  the 
English  residents  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  But  besides 
extra-territorial  courts  there  were  extra-territorial  post- 
offices.  The  English,  the  American,  and,  I think,  the 
French  Governments  had  post-offices  in  Japan  which 
transacted  postal  duties  of  all  kinds  just  as  if  they  had 
been  in  London,  New  York,  and  Paris  instead  of  in  a 
foreign  country.  There  may  have  been  some  excuse  for 
this  in  the  early  days ; but  these  foreign  post-offices 
remained  until  quite  recently,  depriving  Japan  of  a portion 
of  her  revenue  at  a time  when  she  had  developed  a 
magnificent  postal  service  of  her  own.  Over  and  above 
foreign  courts  and  post-offices  there  were  actually  foreign 
municipal  bodies.  A certain  amount  of  ground  at  the 
treaty  ports  was  constituted  a foreign  settlement  wherein 
the  foreigners  resided.  Within  these  settlements  a muni- 
cipal council  was  formed,  which  regulated  everything 
therein.  In  these  settlements  the  Japanese  Government 
had  no  more  power  or  authority  than  they  had  in 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


233 


Battersea.  These  settlements  were  in  efifect  foreign 
territory  on  the  Japanese  soil,  to  use  what  seems  to  be  a 
paradox. 

In  exchange  for  the  privilege  of  extra-territoriality 
granted  to  foreign  residents  in  Japan,  they  were  placed 
under  restrictions.  These  included  not  being  able  to 
travel  in  the  country  outside  a radius  of  25  miles 
from  the  treaty  ports  unless  provided  with  passports, 
which,  I may  remark,  there  was  never  any  difficulty  in 
obtaining,  and  not  being  permitted  to  live  beyond  the 
same  radius.  Foreigners  engaged  in  trade  in  Japan  had 
a great  advantage  in  regard  to  a very  low  scale  of  customs 
duties,  not  more  than  5 per  cent,  ad  valorem,  but  they  were 
strictly  prohibited  from  owning  land.  This  system  of 
extra-territoriality  was  extremely  unpopular  with  the 
whole  of  the  Japanese  people,  and  a constant  movement 
was  in  force  in  the  country  for  the  abrogation  of  what  the 
Japanese  considered  an  invidious  distinction  and  in  the 
direction  of  making  every  person  who  voluntarily  took  up 
residence  in  Japan  answerable  to  the  law  of  the  land  and 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Japanese  courts.  The  revenue 
of  the  country  was  also,  of  course,  injuriously  effected  by 
the  post-office  privileges  already  referred  to  as  well  as  by 
the  differential  treatment  of  foreigners  in  regard  to  import 
duties.  As  was  to  be  expected,  any  proposal  for  the 
abolition  of  extra-territorial  rights  and  the  revision  of 
the  regulations  in  regard  to  import  duties  met  with  a 
strenuous  opposition  from  the  foreign  residents  in  Japan. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  Japanese 
people  opposed  any  compromise  in  the  direction  of  grant- 
ing foreigners  facilities  in  return  for  the  privileges  that 
were  asked  to  be  waived.  The  proposal  to  allow 
foreigners  to  own  land  was  vigorously  inveighed  against. 


234 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


So  was  a suggestion  to  establish  mixed  courts — the  kind  of 
compromise,  by  the  way,  which  would  probably  have 
equally  irritated  foreigners  and  natives.  It  is,  I think, 
satisfactory  to  be  able  to  relate  that  in  the  end  and  after 
many  years  of  agitation  it  was  the  British  Government 
which  took  the  initiative  in  the  matter,  and  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  ago  concluded  a treaty  with  Japan  wherein 
the  privileges  of  English  courts,  European  municipalities, 
and  differential  import  duties  were  abandoned,  while  in 
return  proprietary  rights,  except  in  regard  to  land,  were 
granted  to  foreigners. 

There  are,  mayhap,  some  persons  at  the  present  day  who 
are  not  aware  of  the  fact  that  for  a good  many  years  after 
Japan  was  to  a limited  extent  opened  to  foreigners  several 
of  the  Powers  retained  an  armed  force  in  that  country  for 
the  protection  of  foreign  residents.  Great  Britain,  for 
instance,  had  a large  number  of  marines  at  Yokohama. 
The  presence  of  these  troops  was  extremely  unpalatable 
to  the  Japanese  authorities,  but  of  course  pleasing  to  the 
foreign  residents,  who  opposed  their  withdrawal  just  as 
they  opposed  the  abrogation  of  extra-territoriality.  I am 
afraid  the  reason  for  the  removal  of  this  armed  force  as 
far  as  Great  Britain  was  concerned  was  economic  rather 
than  founded  on  any  particular  principle.  Be  that  as  it 
may,  in  1873  Japan  was  successful  in  assuring  the  British 
Government  that  she  was  able  and  prepared  to  protect  all 
foreigners  residing  in  the  country,  and  in  that  year  the  last 
foreign  soldier  was  withdrawn  from  Japanese  territory. 

Those  who  remember  the  agitation — and  a very  fierce 
and  noisy  and  provocative  agitation  it  was — in  opposition 
to  the  revision  of  Japan’s  treaties  with  the  foreign  Powers 
with  a view  of  getting  rid  of  extra-territoriality  will  have 
a lively  recollection  of  the  pessimistic  forebodings  of  the 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


235 


speakers  and  writers  in  reference  to  the  future  of  the 
foreign  community  in  that  country  were  the  exclusive 
privileges  they  then  enjoyed  taken  away  from  them.  The 
gentlemen  who  uttered  these  sentiments  were  no  doubt 
sincerely  convinced  of  their  truth,  but  I am  glad  to  be 
able  to  relate  that  time  has  shown  them  to  have  been 
false  prophets.  There  may  be,  and  no  doubt  are,  foreigners 
in  Japan  who  bemoan  the  good  old  days,  but  I am 
confident  that  the  great  mass  of  the  foreign  community 
now  recognises  the  fact  that  the  revision  of  the  treaties 
and  the  withdrawal  of  extra-territorial  privileges  were 
inevitable  and  that  no  evil  results  have  ensued  in 
consequence.  The  Japanese  courts  of  law  have  neither 
terrorised  nor  oppressed  foreigners.  They  have,  on  the 
contrary,  sought  to  hold  the  scales  of  justice  evenly,  and 
I believe  that  these  courts  now  enjoy,  as  I am  sure  they 
deserve,  the  fullest  confidence  in  their  integrity  and  justice 
of  every  foreigner  residing  in  the  country. 

I have  noticed  a tendency  on  the  part  of  writers  on 
Japan  to  refer  to  the  foreign  community  in  that  Empire  as 
if  it  were  a community  bound  together  by  some  particular 
principle  and  working  in  unison  for  some  definite  object. 
Of  course  such  a view  is  nonsensical.  The  foreign 
community  in  Japan,  in  which  for  the  purpose  of  my 
remarks  I do  not  include  the  Chinese,  is  one  composed  of 
a large  number  of  nationalities  which  have  very  little  in 
common,  and  amongst  whom  a good  deal  of  rivalry 
prevails.  It  may  have  been  that  when  the  question 
of  revising  the  treaties  was  being  keenly  agitated,  self- 
interest,  or  what  was  deemed  to  be  self-interest,  occasioned 
a sort  of  fictitious  unity  among  foreigners,  but  at  the 
present  time,  so  far  as  my  observation  has  gone,  there  is 
very  little  real  unity  among  the  foreigners  in  Japan.  The 


236 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


English,  of  course,  predominate  in  numbers,  and  they  have 
also  the  major  portion  of  the  trade  in  their  hands. 
Whether  such  a condition  of  things  will  much  longer 
obtain  is  a moot  question.  I am  of  opinion,  as  I have 
elsewhere  indicated,  that  the  trade  of  Japan  will  very 
largely  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  themselves, 
and  that  the  foreign  element  in  Japan  is  accordingly  not 
only  unlikely  to  increase  in  number  but  is  almost  certain 
to  diminish. 

In  the  early  days  when  Japan  was  first  opened  to  the 
Western  world  and  English  traders  went  there  to  push 
their  commodities,  we  heard  a good  deal  about  the  peculiar 
ethics  of  Japanese  commercial  morality.  The  European 
merchant  either  was,  or  affected  to  be,  shocked  at  the 
loose  commercial  code  of  honour  of  those  with  whom  he 
was  brought  into  contact  in  Japan,  and  he  expressed 
himself  accordingly.  However  much  or  little  ground 
there  may  have  been  for  these  accusations  many  years 
ago  I am  not  in  a position  to  judge.  In  forming  any 
opinion  in  this  matter,  if  that  opinion  is  to  be  correct, 
it  is,  I think,  essential  to  remember  the  conditions  of 
society  in  Japan  when  it  was  first  opened  to  European 
trade.  In  old  Japan  there  were  four  recognised  classes 
of  society — the  Samurai,  the  farmers,  the  artisans,  and 
the  merchants.  The  last  two  were  somewhat  looked 
down  upon  by  the  others.  It  is,  accordingly,  hardly  to 
be  wondered  at  that  the  condition  of  industry  and  com- 
merce was  the  least  satisfactory  feature  in  the  initial 
stages  of  national  development.  Despised  alike  by  the 
gentry  and  the  peasantry,  the  traders  were  in  a some- 
what sorry  plight  when  Japan  was  thrown  open.  The 
low  social  status  of  the  trading  class  in  Japan  was  due 
to  the  feudal  ideas  which  prevailed  for  so  many  centuries. 


I 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


237 


The  people  were  impressed  with  the  productive  power  of 
the  soil,  and  jumped  at  the  conclusion  that  the  merchant 
class  must  necessarily  be  immoral,  since  it  purchased  the 
produce  of  the  soil  at  a low  price  and  sold  it  at  a profit. 
Very  similar  ideas  have  prevailed  in  countries  other  than 
Japan.  It  is  not  so  very  many  years  ago  that  in  England 
a man  of  good  family,  much  less  a member  of  the  aris- 
tocracy, going  into  trade  was  looked  upon  with  no  very 
favourable  eyes.  We  know  that  the  ideas  that  not  so  very 
many  years  ago  obtained  in  this  country  in  reference  to 
this  matter  have  entirely  altered.  Trade  is  now  considered 
to  furnish  most  excellent  scope  and  opportunities  for  the 
energy  and  capital  of  all  classes  of  the  community.  And 
the  same  ideas  have  been  working  in  Japan.  The  mer- 
chant there  is  no  longer  a member  of  a despised  class. 
The  scions  of  the  most  ancient  families  in  Japan,  as  in 
England,  have  embarked  in  trade  and  brought  to  their 
business  those  high  ideals  which  they  have  derived  from 
their  ancestors.  The  criticisms  of  commercial  morality  in 
Japan  which  were  so  prevalent  not  very  many  years  ago 
are  now  entirely  obsolete.  I fear,  however,  that  the  effect 
of  them  still  to  some  extent  remains,  and  that  there  are  a 
large  number  of  people  in  this  country  who  even  now 
believe  that  the  Japanese,  from  a commercial  point  of 
view,  are  what  is  termed  “ tricky.”  I hope  my  remarks 
on  this  head  may  serve  to  disabuse  the  minds  of  some 
of  those  persons  who  still  entertain  these  extremely 
erroneous  ideas. 

I do  not  think  that  there  is  a very  large  amount  of 
social  intercourse  between  the  Europeans  in  Japan  and 
the  Japanese  themselves.  The  European  in  the  East,  or 
at  any  rate  the  Englishman  in  the  East,  so  far  as  I have 
been  able  to  judge,  always  appears  to  me  to  assume  an  air 


238 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


— it  may  be  an  unconscious  air — of  superiority  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  in  which  he  resides.  That  this 
is  frequently  extremely  galling  to  them  there  can  be  no 
question.  Any  one  who  has  conversed  with  the  intelligent 
native  of  India  must  be  aware  of  that  fact.  Whether  the 
greatness  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  be  in  some  degree  or  in 
a large  measure  due  to  the  belief  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  has 
in  himself  is  a question  I need  not  consider.  But  I think 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  this  sense  of 
superiority,  however  much  or  little  justification  there  may 
be  for  it,  is  a characteristic  not  likely  to  be  appreciated 
by  foreigners,  and  especially  Orientals,  and  I think  I am 
justified  in  remarking  that  the  Japanese  do  not  at  all 
appreciate  it. 

The  European  may  impress  the  Oriental  in  one  of 
several  ways  ; he  has  for  the  most  part  done  so  by  his 
great  military  or  naval  prowess.  That  is  the  way  in 
which  Great  Britain  has  impressed  the  natives  of  India. 
The  English  are  in  that  country  as  a conquering  race. 
They  have  practically  never  been  defeated,  and  the  respect 
which  they  have  obtained  is  the  respect  that  the  weak 
have  for  the  strong.  In  Japan  such  a state  of  things  is 
no  longer  possible.  The  results  of  the  Russian  War  have 
rendered  it  impossible  for  all  time.  An  Oriental  nation 
has  met  a European  Power  on  the  field  and  on  the  high 
seas,  and  soundly  thrashed  it.  There  is,  however,  another 
way  in  which  the  European  might  impress  the  Oriental. 
The  former  professes  to  have  a purer  religion  and  a higher 
code  of  morals.  He  has  sought  to  impose  his  religion 
upon  every  race  with  which  he  has  been  brought  into 
contact,  and  if  he  has  not  sought  to  impose  his  moral 
system,  he  has,  at  any  rate,  severely  criticised  that  of 
the  people  with  whom  he  has  been  brought  into  contact. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


239 


and  compared  it  with  his  own  to  their  disadvantage.  In 
Japan,  where  there  is  a large  foreign  community,  the 
thinking,  logical  Japanese  has  had  abundant  opportunities 
for  studying  not  only  the  principles  of  Western  religions 
and  Western  morality,  but  also  the  practice  of  them  by 
Western  residents  in  his  own  land. 

The  result  has  been  to  give  him  much  food  for  reflection. 
He  reads  the  criticisms  of  Europe  upon  the  Yoshiwara  and 
the  Japanese  attitude  generally  towards  prostitution,  while 
he  has  ample  evidence  of  the  fact  that  many  of  the  patrons 
of  the  Yoshiwara  are  to  be  found  among  the  European 
community  in  Japan.  And  so  of  religion.  The  various 
Christian  denominations  of  the  Western  world  aspire  to 
convert  Japan,  and  send  missionaries  there  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  Japanese  gives  them  a fair  field,  and  he  has 
shown  no  aversion  to  investigate  their  dogmas.  At  the 
same  time  he  sees  that  a large  proportion,  I might  perhaps 
say  the  majority,  of  the  European  residents  in  Japan  do 
not  trouble  to  attend  the  Christian  places  of  worship,  while 
many  of  them  make  no  disguise  of  their  contempt  for 
Christianity  in  general  and  the  missionaries  in  particular. 
What  conclusion,  may  I ask,  can  the  logical,  reasoning 
Japanese  come  to  in  these  matters? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  foreign  resi- 
dents in  Japan  have  accomplished  a great  work  in  regard 
to  the  development  of  the  country.  The  settlements 
established  by  them  at  the  various  treaty  ports  and  the 
administration  of  those  settlements  as  municipalities  re- 
flected great  credit  upon  all  those  concerned,  and  was  a 
splendid  object-lesson  for  the  Japanese  people.  Great 
Britain,  too,  may,  I think,  be  congratulated  on  the  men 
she  has  selected  to  represent  her  at  the  Japanese  Court. 
There  is  no  man  to  whom  both  Great  Britain  and  Japan 


240 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


are  more  indebted  than  the  late  Sir  Harry  Parkes.  I 
cannot  remember  during  how  many  years  he  was  the 
British  Minister  at  Tokio,  but  during  the  whole  of  his 
term  of  office  he  used  his  best  endeavours  in  the  direction 
of  showing  Japan  the  way  she  ought  to  go  in  the  path  of 
progress,  and  in  rendering  her  all  the  assistance  possible  in 
that  direction  by  procuring  for  her  the  very  best  assistance 
of  every  description.  I strongly  advise  every  person 
interested  in  Japan  and  its  development  to  peruse  the  Life 
of  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  by  Mr.  F.  V.  Dickins  and  Mr.  Stanley 
L.  Poole.  One  interesting  feature  in  Sir  Harry  Parkes’s 
career  I may  record  here,  as  I have  had  it  on  the  authority 
of  a gentleman  conversant  with  the  facts.  Sir  Harry  was 
always  a persona  gratissima  with  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment, and  about  the  year  1877  he  and  the  late  Admiral 
Sir  A.  P.  Ryder,  then  Commander-in-Chief  on  the  China 
station,  had  a conversation  respecting,  in  view  of  the 
aggressive  policy  of  Russia  in  the  Far  East,  obtaining  a 
British  coaling  station  much  further  north  than  Hong 
Kong.  Admiral  Ryder  mentioned  as  an  appropriate 
place  the  island  of  Tsu-shima,  so  famous  in  the  recent 
war  with  Russia.  Sir  Harry  Parkes  promised  to  use  his 
good  offices  with  the  Japanese  Government  to  obtain  per- 
mission to  occupy  this  island  with  a view  of  its  ultimate 
cession  to  Great  Britain.  The  permission  was  duly 
obtained,  and  Admiral  Ryder  thereupon  cabled  home  to 
the  Admiralty  for  the  necessary  permission  to  take  over 
the  island.  His  request  was  promptly  vetoed,  and  Great 
Britain,  accordingly,  lost  for  ever  the  opportunity  of  obtain- 
ing an  admirable  coaling  station  and  a splendid  strategical 
position  in  the  Far  East.  It  is  quite  certain  that  Japan 
does  not  now  regret  the  refusal  of  Great  Britain  to  accept 
her  too  generous  offer. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


241 


Europeans  have  been  in  Japan,  and  very  much  in 
evidence,  during  the  past  half-century  or  so,  but  I do 
not  think  that  the  residents  in  the  country  have  exercised 
much  influence  upon  Japan.  During  that  period  there 
have  been  enormous  changes  ; the  whole  life  of  the  nation 
has,  in  fact,  been  revolutionised.  But  these  changes  have 
not  been  wrought,  or  indeed  greatly  affected,  by  the 
European  residents  in  the  country.  The  changes  have 
emanated  from  Europe  and  America — not  that  portion  of 
Europe  and  America  which  went  to  Japan  for  its  own 
objects.  I make,  of  course,  a particular  exception  in 
regard  to  those  naval  and  military  and  scientific  men 
to  whose  exertions  Japan  owes  so  much  of  her  advance- 
ment. But  I do  say  of  the  ordinary  trader  or  merchant 
that  he  has  come  to  Japan,  and  left  it  without  producing 
much  effect,  if  any,  on  the  development  of  the  nation,  or 
leaving  behind  him  any  influences  of  a useful  nature. 

The  European  in  Japan  necessarily  suggests  some 
allusion  to  that  large  and  annually  increasing  number  of 
persons  who  visit  the  country.  Their  residence  in  Japan 
is  usually  of  very  limited  duration,  but,  however  short  it 
may  be,  it  is  apparently  quite  long  enough  to  enable  them 
to  form  pronounced  views  upon  many  and  varied  matters 
connected  with  the  country  and  the  people.  I have  no 
hesitation  in  asserting  that  the  erroneous  opinions  so 
prevalent  in  Europe  in  regard  to  Japan  and  the  Japanese 
people  are  largely  the  outcome  of  the  far  too  numerous 
books  that  have  been  written  and  published  in  reference  to 
that  country  of  recent  years.  “Ten  Days  in  Japan  ” may 
be  an  alluring  title  for  a book  of  travel,  but  quite  evidently 
ten  days  are  not  sufficient  to  form  an  opinion  and  promul- 
gate it  upon  every  phase  of  Japanese  life,  nor  for  the 
solution  of  many  vexed  problems.  And  yet,  so  far  as  my 

R 


242 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


perusal  of  these  books  has  gone,  the  shorter  the  period  a 
man  or  woman  has  spent  in  Japan  the  more  pronounced 
his  or  her  views  in  regard  to  the  country.  The  matter  is 
hardly  worth  referring  to  were  it  not  that  these  opinions, 
hastily  arrived  at  and  apparently  as  hurriedly  rushed  into 
print,  have  been  accepted  by  some  people  as  incontro- 
vertible facts.  Another  class  of  work  that  I think  a 
reader  should  be  warned  against  is  the  book  of  the  man 
who  has  lived  in  Japan  for  a time  and  seen  life  only  from 
a certain  standpoint.  The  book  of  a bishop  or  a mis- 
sionary may  be  and  often  is  of  undoubted  value  in 
reference  to  his  work  and  matters  connected  with  his 
work,  but  when  the  writer  gets  outside  this  particular 
province  and  deals  with  subjects  his  knowledge  of  which 
must  be  at  the  best  second-hand  he  is  almost  certain  to 
perpetrate  some  flagrant  mistakes,  and  occasionally  indite 
the  most  egregious  nonsense.  I shall  not  particularly 
apply  these  remarks,  but  I think  it  necessary  to  utter  this 
word  of  warning  as  the  literary  effusions  of  some  very 
estimable  men  and  women  in  regard  to  Japan  have  given 
occasion  for  many  false  misconceptions  being  entertained 
in  regard  to  that  country. 

The  cry  of  “Japan  for  the  Japanese”  has  undoubtedly 
been  heard  in  that  land,  and  during  the  agitation  over  the 
revision  of  the  treaties  the  foreign  community  appeared  to 
be  under  the  impression  that  the  policy  emphasised  in  that 
cry  was  the  one  which  Japan  desired  to  attain.  For 
myself  I do  not  believe  it.  I am  positive  that  Japan  to-day 
has  no  desire  to  exclude  foreigners,  or  to  revert  into  her 
old  position  of  isolation.  I believe,  on  the  contrary,  that 
she  desires  to  welcome  foreigners  and  to  give  them  every 
facility  within  proper  limits  for  pursuing  their  enterprises. 
At  the  same  time  she  has  no  desire  for  the  foreign 


MINISTERING  ANGEL 


s’  * 
!♦  ”1 


4 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAPAN 


243 


adventurer,  prospector,  or  embryo  company  promoter. 
She  does  not  wish,  in  fact,  that  Japan  shall  be  exploited 
either  in  respect  of  minerals  or  any  other  purpose  with  the 
object  of  directly  or  indirectly  pouring  wealth  into  London 
or  any  other  city.  The  enterprising  gentlemen  from 
England  and  other  countries  who  have  sought  to  obtain 
concessions  of  various  kinds  in  Japan  have  failed  in  their 
object.  Their  efforts  would  probably  only  have  brought 
discredit  on  the  country,  and  could  hardly  by  any  pos- 
sibility have  aided  in  its  material  advancement.  There  is 
only  one  word  of  advice  that  I should  feel  inclined  to 
proffer  the  European  in  Japan,  and  that  is  to  refrain  less 
from  exercising  his  caustic  wit  at  the  expense  of  the 
Japanese  people.  A nation  which  has  passed  through 
such  drastic  changes  as  have  characterised  Japan  in  the 
last  two  or  three  decades  can  no  doubt  furnish  abundant 
opportunities  for  the  jibes  of  the  flippant,  and  the  humour 
of  those  who  consider  they  are  endowed  with  a pretty  wit. 
But  the  exercise  of  sardonic  humour  and  an  excessive 
sarcasm  tends  to  promote  ill-feeling  and  serves  no  useful 
purpose.  The  right  spirit,  in  my  opinion,  for  any  man  to 
regard  Japan  is  as  a nation  struggling  to  obtain  and 
assimilate  all  that  is  best  in  the  world  and  aspiring  to  be 
in  fact  an  eclectic  power.  It  can  at  least  be  said  of  Japan 
that  it  is  the  only  nation  in  the  world’s  history  which  has 
entertained  such  aspirations  and  has  sought  to  give  effect 
to  them. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


A VISIT  TO  SOME  BUDDHIST  TEMPLES 

I WAS  lying  awake  in  my  room  in  the  Myako  Hotel, 
the  window  looking  out  across  the  town  below  to- 
wards the  eastern  hills  and  framed  with  clusters  of  red 
maple.  It  was  the  clear  stillness  of  a frosty  morning 
before  dawn,  not  motion  enough  in  the  autumn  air  to  stir 
a ripe  red  maple  leaf,  and  as  I lay  in  bed  suddenly  the 
air  itself  seemed  to  heave  a sigh  of  music  mellow,  soft, 
and  yet  full,  gradual  in  its  coming  as  in  its  going,  all- 
pervading,  strange  and  wonderful.  Stillness  again,  and 
then  it  came  again,  or  rather  not  so  much  came  as  was 
there,  and  then  was  not  there  ; for  it  seemed  to  come  from 
no  whither,  and  to  leave  not  even  the  footprint  of  an 
echo  in  the  air  behind.  There  was  sanctity  in  the  very 
sound  itself.  Its  music  was  like  vocal  incense  arising 
before  the  “ awful  rose  of  dawn,”  beyond  those  purple 
eastern  hills.  How  unlike,  I thought,  the  jar  and  clangour 
of  our  church  bells  in  London  on  a Sunday  morning 
rattling  like  a fire  alarm,  whose  only  possible  religious 
suggestion  is  to  tumble  out  of  bed  to  escape  the  flames  of 
hell.  The  musical  summons  of  this  bell  was  sufficient, 
however,  to  induce  me  to  go  out  for  a stroll  through  the 
temples  in  the  morning  twilight. 

All  on  the  crest  of  the  hill  behind  the  hotel  is  a row  of 

244 


A VISIT  TO  SOME  BUDDHIST  TEMPLES  245 


temples  crowning  the  height.  One  mounts  a flight  of 
steps  and  then  comes  on  avenues  with  rows  of  ancient 
trees  on  either  side  that  make  the  avenues  look  like  great 
aisles  of  which  the  immense  trees  are  the  columns  sup- 
porting the  deep,  blue  roof.  Nothing  is  more  striking 
about  these  temples  than  the  delightful  harmony  between 
their  natural  surroundings  and  the  buildings  themselves. 
They  blend  so  perfectly  that  one  loses  sight  of  the  meet- 
ing between  nature  and  art.  From  the  steps  onward  all 
seems  a harmonious  part  of  the  sanctified  whole.  Trees, 
creepers,  and  natural  flowers  peep  in  and  almost  entwine 
themselves  with  the  marvellously  painted  or  carved  foliage 
of  the  temple  itself.  The  rich  lichens  and  mosses  of  the 
tree-trunks  vie  in  depth  and  beauty  of  colour  with  the 
inlaid  traceries  of  the  columns. 

Early  as  the  hour  was  I was  not  alone  in  the  first 
temple  I came  to.  With  tinkling  steps  of  wooden  shoes 
a little  woman  pattered  up  the  stone  stairs  to  one  of  the 
shrines,  pulled  the  heavy  cord  of  the  small  bell  above  her 
head  to  awaken  the  attention  of  the  Deity,  and  then  with 
joined  hands  encircled  with  beads  and  with  bowed  head 
whisperered  her  morning  prayer.  I just  caught  in  soft, 
supplicatory  accents  the  opening  words,  “Namu  Amida 
Butsu  ” — “ Hear  me,  compassionate  Lord  Buddha  ” — 
words  that  soon  become  familiar  as  one  visits  these 
temples ; the  great  refrain  of  these  people’s  prayers 
when  they  pray  before  the  image  of  “ Him,  honoured, 
wisest,  best,  most  pitiful,  whose  lips  comfort  the  world.” 
And  then,  having  finished  her  prayers,  the  little  woman 
pattered  back  to  her  home  in  the  town  below,  while  others 
come  and  make  their  devotions  likewise,  all  leaving  the 
temple  as  if  that  placid,  inscrutable  image  had  whispered 
in  the  ear  of  each  some  word  of  comfort. 


246 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


In  the  courtyard  beyond  the  great  Temple  of  Kiomidyu 
I came  upon  a wonderful  bell.  There  was  room  for  over  a 
dozen  men  to  stand  inside  the  great  bronze  shell.  It  was 
hung  just  above  the  ground  between  plain  timber  uprights, 
and  the  mellow  softness  of  tone  was  accounted  for  by  the 
way  in  which  it  was  struck.  Instead  of  metal  striking 
against  metal  a great  tree-trunk  is  suspended  horizontally 
outside ; this  is  swung  backwards  and  forwards  and  then 
allowed  to  strike  against  the  metal.  Even  when  standing 
close  to  it  there  is  nothing  one  would  call  noise,  but  a 
great,  full,  rich  sound  fills  the  air  in  a manner  impossible  to 
describe.  I passed  on  to  the  latticed  shrine  dedicated  to 
Kamnoshut  No  Kami,  the  goddess  of  lovers.  As  I waited 
there  three  little  Japanese  girls  came  up  the  steps.  Each 
had  a small  piece  of  paper  in  her  hand,  and  winding  them 
up  they  deftly  placed  the  papers  in  the  lattice  with  the 
thumb  and  little  finger  of  their  hands.  On  these  were 
written  their  petitions.  One  of  them  held  a bunch  of 
brilliant  maple  leaves  in  her  hand,  and  judging  from  their 
faces — plain  little  faces  all  of  them — it  was  easy  to  under- 
stand they  wanted  divine  assistance  in  their  love  affairs. 
It  was  difficult  to  understand  the  goddess  retaining  any 
reputation  for  compassion  if  their  prayers  were  not 
answered.  After  they  had  gone  next  came  a dainty  little 
geisha,  a pretty  girl,  whose  lover  must  have  been  a sad 
worry  to  her,  judging  by  the  look  on  her  anxious  little 
face,  as  she  placed  her  petition  between  the  bars. 

All  through  these  temples  it  was  obvious  that  the 
agnosticism,  or  indifference,  or  attitude  of  “ politeness  to- 
wards possibilities,”  which  has  apparently  taken  possession 
of  the  upper  classes  in  Japan,  possibly  as  the  result  of 
contact  with  the  West,  is  in  no  way  prevalent  among  the 
masses.  In  all  the  country  parts  that  I visited  and  in  the 


A VISIT  TO  SOME  BUDDHIST  TEMPLES  247 


large  temples  in  the  great  cities  there  was  everywhere 
evidence  of  faith  as  sincere  and  devout  as  can  be  found  in 
the  churches  of  the  most  Christian  country  in  Europe. 
Unlike  China,  there  was  nowhere  any  sign  of  the  temples 
falling  into  decay.  Every  temple  in  China  looks  like  a 
neglected  mausoleum  decaying  over  the  corpse  of  a dead 
religion,  and  the  priests  look  like  sextons  of  a neglected 
graveyard.  But  here  in  Kyoto  two  of  the  largest  temples 
were  undergoing  elaborate  repairs,  and  in  Tokio  an 
immense  new  temple  is  being  erected  in  the  heart  of  the 
city.  In  Kyoto  at  the  Temple  of  Nishi  Hong  Wangi  I was 
present  at  a great  seven  days’  religious  festival.  From 
nine  o’clock  in  the  morning  until  six  o’clock  in  the  even- 
ing the  temple  was  perpetually  thronged  with  people.  I 
visited  it  in  the  afternoon.  In  one  large  room  a priest 
was  preaching.  His  congregation  was  largely  composed 
of  country  people  from  all  the  districts  round,  who  had 
journeyed  in  with  their  wives  and  families.  There  had 
been  an  abundant  harvest,  it  was  over  and  stored,  and  the 
people  had  come  to  give  thanks.  A great  part  of  the 
congregation  were  blue-clad  peasants  with  white  handker- 
chiefs around  their  heads.  Many  of  them  had  brought 
their  children  with  them. 

The  priest  preached  sitting  down,  in  a quiet  conver- 
sational tone.  From  what  a Japanese  friend  was  kind 
enough  to  translate  for  me,  there  was  nothing  esoteric  in 
the  Buddhism  he  was  teaching.  It  was  simply  plain 
lessons  to  the  people,  how  to  make  good  their  simple  lives 
interspersed  with  stories  and  anecdotes  that  occasionally 
amused  his  congregation.  Following  the  crowd  that  kept 
streaming  out  from  his  hall  towards  the  larger  temple, 
I passed  under  a plain  portico  of  huge  wooden  columns, 
severe  and  simple  on  the  outside,  but  gorgeous  with  rich 


248 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


carvings  of  gold  lacquer  panels  and  hangings  of  richly 
wrought  embroideries  within.  The  entire  floor  of  the 
great  building  was  crowded,  and  the  overflow  of  the  con- 
gregation knelt  upon  the  flags  outside  the  door.  With 
difficulty  I picked  my  way  inside.  Two  rows  of  priests  in 
brilliantly  coloured  vestments  were  arranged  on  either 
side  of  the  central  figure  of  Buddha.  Between  them  was 
the  chief  priest.  Behind  the  altar  screen  was  an  invisible 
choir.  In  alternating  numbers  the  solemn,  supplicating 
chant  was  led  by  either  row  of  priests.  In  a way  it 
reminded  one  of  the  Gregorian  chant  one  often  hears  in 
Catholic  churches,  but  in  this  Buddhist  chanting  there 
was  that  curious  Oriental  strain  of  semi-tones  that  gave  a 
strange  and  peculiar  plaint  to  the  chorus. 

Faint  blue  columns  of  incense  were  streaming  slowly 
from  bronze  censors  towards  the  carved  roof,  and  diffusing 
a delightful  aromatic  odour  throughout  the  building. 
The  congregation  was  composed  of  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  the  population,  although  the  majority  were  peasants  ; 
there  were  a number  of  Japanese  ladies  who  came 
accompanied  by  their  maids,  and  here  and  there  the 
brighter  costume  of  a Geisha  was  to  be  seen  among  the 
crowd. 

The  series  of  services  lasted  for  seven  days.  This  was 
the  fifth.  Beginning  at  six  o’clock  in  the  morning,  it 
went  on  till  six  o’clock  in  the  evening.  It  was  just  at  its 
conclusion  while  I was  there.  Mingling  with  the  chorus 
from  the  priests  and  the  choir  ran  a low  murmur  from 
the  crowd.  The  old  country  men  and  women  said  their 
prayers  aloud,  and  the  refrain  of  “ Namu  Amida  Butsu  ” 
seemed  perpetually  in  one’s  ears.  As  the  conclusion  of 
the  service  approached,  the  voices  of  the  choir,  the  priests, 
and  the  congregation  increased  in  strength  and  volume, 


A VISIT  TO  SOME  BUDDHIST  TEMPLES  249 


and  ceased  suddenly  in  a final  chord  of  supplication.  For 
a few  moments  there  was  stillness  over  the  bowed  heads 
of  the  congregation,  and  then  the  priests  rose  and  the 
crowd  began  to  stream  down  the  great  flight  of  steps.  In 
the  streets  outside  were  rows  of  booths,  where  printed 
prayers  and  brightly  embroidered  triangular  cloths,  beads 
and  images  were  being  sold  as  mementoes  of  these  services. 
The  whole  congregation,  even  old  men  and  women,  as 
they  toddled  down  the  steps  at  the  base  of  which  they 
put  on  their  shoes,  reminded  one  forcibly  of  a lot  of 
children  coming  out  from  school.  Laughing,  chattering, 
and  joking,  there  was  a look  of  satisfaction  and  content- 
ment on  all  their  faces,  returning  homewards,  as  if  they 
felt  that  in  reply  to  their  prayer,  “Namu  Amida  Butsu,” 
the  compassionate  Lord  Buddha,  had  listened  to  their 
prayer,  and  whispered  in  answer  to  the  heart  of  each, 
“ Comfort  ye,  my  people.” 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  AINOS 


BOOK  on  Japan  would  be  incomplete  without  some 


reference  to  the  Ainos,  that  mysterious  race  found, 
and  found  only,  in  the  northern  island  ofYesso.  The 
Ainos  have  long  been  the  puzzle  of  the  ethnologist. 
Where  the  Ainos  came  from  or  to  what  other  race  they 
are  akin  are  problems  that  have  given  occasion  for  much 
learned  dissertation,  but  are  still  as  far  off  solution  as 
ever.  Mr.  Basil  Chamberlain,  all  of  whose  writings  upon 
Japan  are  replete  with  erudition  and  information,  has 
observed  that  the  Aino  race  deserves  to  be  studied  because 
“ its  domain  once  extended  over  the  entire  Japanese 
Archipelago,”  and  also  “ because  it  is,  so  to  speak,  almost 
at  its  last  gasp.”  Unfortunately  the  evidence  for  the  latter 
fact  is  more  conclusive  than  for  the  former.  The  Ainos 
are,  it  seems,  to  be  no  exception  to  that  mysterious  law  of 
the  survival  of  the  fittest,  which  decrees  that  an  inferior 
race  shall  go  down  before  the  superior,  and  in  due  course 
become  merely  a name.  I have  called  this  a mysterious 
law  because  such  disappearance  is  not  necessarily  the 
result  of  conquest  or  of  ruthless  destruction.  When  the 
inferior  race  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  superior  it 
seems,  by  some  mysterious  process,  to  be  infected  with 


■250 


THE  AINOS 


251 


the  elements  of  decay,  to  be  impregnated  with  the  germs 
of  annihilation.  And,  accordingly,  it  comes  about,  in 
accordance  with  the  dictates  of  the  law  I have  referred  to, 
that  although  a society  has  been  founded  in  Japan  very 
much  on  the  lines  of  our  Aborigines  Protection  Society, 
an  Aino  Preservation  Society,  the  Ainos  seem  doomed 
to  extinction  at  no  far-distant  date. 

Whether  or  not  the  Ainos  once  inhabited  the  whole  of 
the  Japanese  islands  and  trekked  north  to  get  away  from 
their  conquerors,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that 
they  are  in  almost  every  respect  the  very  antithesis  of  the 
Japanese.  The  latter  are  a smooth-skinned  race,  the 
Ainos  an  extremely  hairy  one.  The  Japanese  are  essen- 
tially a clean,  a scrupulously  clean  people,  the  Ainos  just 
as  essentially  dirty.  The  long  beards  and  general  facial 
appearance  of  the  latter  are  altogether  in  startling  contrast 
to  the  physiognomy  of  the  average  Japanese. 

When  ethnology  fails  to  place  a race,  philology  often 
steps  in  with  more  or  less  of  success.  The  Aino  language 
has  been  profoundly  studied  by  many  eminent  philologists, 
but  I do  not  think  the  results  have  tended  to  throw  much, 
if  any,  light  on  the  mystery  as  to  the  origin  and  racial 
affinities  of  the  Ainos.  In  general  structure  the  language 
is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Japanese,  but  this  might  be 
expected  as  the  result  of  centuries  of  intercourse  between 
the  two  people. 

The  Ainos  live  almost  solely  by  fishing  and  hunting. 
The  Japanese  laws,  which  have  year  by  year  been  made 
more  stringent,  have  somewhat  interfered  with  the  sport- 
ing proclivities  of  the  people.  Nets  and  fish  traps  are 
now  forbidden,  and  fishing  for  the  most  part  is  effected  by 
means  of  a spear  or  harpoon,  either  from  the  shore  or 
from  the  somewhat  primitive  canoes  used  by  the  people. 


252 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Poisoned  arrows  were  once  largely  used  for  the  purpose 
of  capturing  game,  but  they  are  now  forbidden  by  law. 
Originally  the  modus  operandi  in  hunting  was  to  set  a trap 
with  one  of  these  arrows  placed  in  it,  and  drive  the  game 
on  to  the  same.  The  head  of  the  arrow  was  only  loosely 
fastened,  and  broke,  leaving  the  poison  inside  even  if  the 
animal  managed  to  pull  out  the  shaft.  The  bear  is  found 
in  Yesso,  and  that  animal  has  entered  very  largely  into 
every  phase  of  Aino  life,  somewhat  circumscribed  though 
this  is.  That  animal  was,  or  used  to  be,  the  objective  point 
of  Aino  festivals,  and  seems,  to  some  extent  at  any  rate, 
to  have  had  a part  in  their  crude  religious  ideas.  Bears, 
are,  however,  becoming  rare  in  Yesso,  and  the  Japanese 
Government,  which  is  paternal  even  in  regard  to  the  fauna 
of  the  islands,  has  from  time  to  time  interfered  with  many 
venerable  Aino  customs. 

The  religion  of  this  interesting  race  is  almost  as  mys- 
terious as  everything  else  appertaining  to  it.  The  Ainos 
have  no  idols  and  no  temples,  and  their  religious  rites  are 
of  a decidedly  simple  nature.  They,  however,  seem  to 
believe  in  an  infinity  of  spirits  inhabiting  various  and 
varied  things,  and  their  pantheon  is  seemingly  a crowded 
one.  I have  said  seemingly,  because  the  beliefs  of  a people 
such  as  this  are  difficult  to  get  at,  and  even  when  one  has 
got  at  them  almost  impossible  to  comprehend.  One  writer 
has  termed  the  religion  of  the  Ainos,  “ a very  primitive 
nature-worship,”  and  their  gods  “ invisible,  formless  con- 
ceptions.” Such  definitions  do  not  convey  much  informa- 
tion. Nature-worship  is  a vague  description  and  “ invisible, 
formless  conceptions  ” of  the  deity  or  deities  are  not 
confined  to  the  Ainos.  Possibly,  like  all  peoples  but 
little  advanced  or  developed  mentally,  their  religious 
conceptions  are  of  the  vaguest  and  have  assumed  no 


THE  AINOS 


253 


definite  shape.  A fear  of  the  unknown,  a blind  groping 
in  the  dark  are,  mayhap,  all  that  the  Aino  possesses  in 
reference  to  the  spiritual  world. 

Although  the  religion  of  the  Aino  when  living  is 
somewhat  incomprehensible  his  religious  ceremonies  in 
reference  to  the  dead  are  of  a somewhat  elaborate  nature. 
After  life  has  become  extinct  the  first  proceeding  is  to 
light  an  enormous  fire  in  the  house.  The  corpse  is  then 
dressed  in  its  best  clothes  and  laid  beside  the  fire,  where 
are  also  placed  dishes,  a drinking-cup,  and  the  implements 
of  the  chase.  In  the  case  of  a woman,  instead  of  these, 
her  beads  and  other  ornaments  are  laid  alongside  of  her  ; 
for  both  sexes  a pipe  and  a tobacco-box,  so  greatly  used 
during  life,  are  considered  essentials  when  dead.  Cakes 
made  of  rice  or  millet  and  a cup  of  sake,  are  also  put  upon 
the  floor.  A kind  of  wake  or  funeral  feast  follows,  at 
which  the  mourners  throw  some  sake  on  the  corpse  as 
a libation  to  its  departed  spirit,  break  off  pieces  of  the 
cake  and  bury  it  in  the  ashes.  The  body  is  covered 
with  a mat  slung  upon  a pole  and  carried  to  the  grave, 
followed  by  the  mourners,  each  of  whom  places  some- 
thing in  the  grave,  which,  it  is  believed,  will  be  carried 
to  the  next  world  with  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  person. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony  the  mourners  wash 
their  hands  in  water  which  has  been  brought  for  the 
purpose.  This  is  then  thrown  on  the  grave  and  the 
vessel  which  conveyed  it  is  broken  in  pieces  and  also 
thrown  on  the  grave.  The  widow  of  the  deceased  shaves 
her  head,  while  the  man  cuts  his  beard  and  hair,  as  out- 
ward symbols  of  grief.  Many  of  these  ceremonies,  it 
will  be  seen,  are  such  as  are  more  or  less  common  to 
all  primitive  races.  There  is,  indeed,  a marked  resem- 
blance between  the  habit  of  the  Ainos  in  burying  articles 


254 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


with  the  deceased  for  his  use  in  the  next  world  and 
that  of  the  North  American  Indians.  But  I am  not 
inclined  to  deduce  any  theory  in  reference  to  the  origin 
of  the  Ainos  from  the  existence  of  these  customs.  Man- 
kind, in  every  part  of  the  world,  seems  to  have  evolved  his 
religious  beliefs  in  very  much  the  same  way.  His  con- 
ception of  the  hereafter  appears  to  have  proceeded  on 
precisely  similar  lines.  The  higher  his  scale  in  civilisation 
the  more  spiritual  and  the  less  material  his  conception 
of  the  future.  The  lower  his  scale  precisely  the  reverse 
is  the  fact.  The  savage,  which  of  course  the  Aino  really 
is,  cannot  imagine  a future  state  where  there  is  no  eating 
and  drinking  and  hunting,  and  he,  accordingly,  thinks 
it  incumbent  on  him,  in  order  to  show  his  respect  for  the 
dead,  to  provide  the  corpse  with  those  articles  which  he 
deems  essential  in  that  unknown  world  where,  according 
to  his  conception,  eating  and  drinking  and  hunting  will 
be  as  prevalent  as  in  this. 

The  Ainos  have  a great  respect  for  the  graves  of  their 
dead,  and  Japanese  legislation  has  taken  the  necessary 
steps  to  prevent  any  tampering  therewith.  Some  years 
ago  a few  scientists  from  Europe  went  on  an  expedition 
from  Hakodate  with  a view  of  obtaining  information 
respecting  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Ainos.  In 
the  course  of  this  expedition  some  graves  were  broken 
into  and  skulls  and  limbs  extracted  therefrom  for  the 
purpose  of  being  taken  to  Europe  for  scientific  researcL 
This  proceeding  occasioned  an  angry  outburst  on  the  part 
of  this  usually  placid  people,  and  the  Japanese  authorities 
gave  the  necessary  instructions  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  such  an  occurrence  in  future.  I suppose  the  scientists, 
in  the  ardour  of  their  enthusiasm,  are  hardly  to  be 
blamed.  Science  too  frequently  overlooks  sentiment, 


THE  AINOS 


255 


which  is,  after  all,  one  of  the  most  potent  forces  in  the 
world. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Japanese  are  supposed  to  have 
been  evolved  from  those  of  the  Ainos.  Both  build  their 
houses  roof  first,  making  the  framework  and  placing 
the  supports  with  shorter  pieces  for  rafters,  all  being  tied 
together  with  a rope  made  of  some  kind  of  fibre.  Poles, 
5 or  6 feet  high  at  regular  intervals  are  then  placed  in 
the  ground,  each  pole  having  a fork  at  the  top  and  short 
horizontal  pieces  from  one  to  the  other,  the  roof  frame 
is  then  erected  on  and  secured  to  the  poles  and  sub- 
sequently thatched  with  straw.  The  floor  is  of  earth, 
with  the  fireplace  in  the  centre.  As  in  Japanese  houses, 
mats  are  used  for  sitting  and  sleeping  purposes.  The 
utensils  of  the  Ainos  are  much  more  primitive  than  those 
in  use  by  the  Japanese  people,  and  generally  it  may  be 
remarked  of  the  Ainos  that  their  wants  are  few  and 
that  the  people  are  content  to  live  their  own  life  in 
their  own  way  and  only  desire  to  be  severely  left  alone. 

The  dress  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Japanese 
peasant.  The  men,  however,  wear  at  certain  seasons 
thick  rain-coats  made  of  salmon  skin,  as  also  leggings 
made  of  a fibre  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  high  boots 
constructed  of  straw.  I am  sorry  to  have  to  relate  that 
the  Ainos  have  a fondness  for  sake,  and  there  is  a good 
deal  of  intoxication  among  them.  The  climate  of  the 
island  of  Yesso,  as  I have  already  remarked,  is  extremely 
severe  in  the  winter-time,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  many  of  the  Ainos  suffer  extreme  privations.  There 
have  been  a few  cases  of  intermarriage  between  the  two 
races,  but  unions  of  this  nature  are  not  looked  on  with 
any  favour  by  either. 

Attempts  have  been  made  by  some  of  the  missionaries 


256 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


in  Japan  to  convert  the  Ainos  to  Christianity,  but  I fear 
the  attempts  made  in  this  direction  have  been  attended 
with  a very  scant  measure  of  success.  A people  such 
as  this  possesses  minds  of  childlike  simplicity,  and  to 
endeavour  to  get  it  to  comprehend  the  abstruse  doctrines 
and  dogmas  of  Christianity  is  an  almost  hopeless  task. 
The  climate  of  Yesso  is  such  as  to  render  it  possible  for 
missionary  efforts  to  take  place  only  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  I do  not  think  there  has  been,  so  far 
as  my  information  goes,  any  systematic  propaganda  of 
Christianity  among  this  interesting  race. 

It  is  certainly  a somewhat  extraordinary  fact  that 
while  the  other  islands  of  Japan  have  been  rapidly 
assimilating  and  are  being  steadily  influenced  by  the 
civilisation  of  Europe  and  America,  the  northern  island 
appears  to  be,  except  possibly  at  Hakodate,  in  a state 
of  complete  isolation  from  all  these  influences  and  effects. 
Whether  the  Ainos  have  any  conception  of  the  influences 
at  work  in  and  the  progress  being  made  by  the  Empire 
of  which  they  are  subjects,  I do  not  know,  but  to  me 
it  is  both  interesting  and  curious  to  regard  this  ancient 
and  decaying  race,  either  indifferent  to  or  ignorant  of 
all  the  bustle  and  hurry  and  worry  of  modern  civilisa- 
tion so  close  to  them  and  yet  so  far  removed  from  their 
childlike  minds  and  ideas. 

The  question  may  be  asked.  How  comes  it  that  a highly 
civilised  people  such  as  the  Japanese  have  been  for  many 
hundreds  of  years,  have  exercised  practically  no  influence 
upon  this  subject  race  inhabiting  a portion  of  their 
territory?  A nation  such  as  Japan,  with  a literature 
and  an  art  of  its  own,  with  two  highly  developed  religious 
systems,  and  with  many  of  those  other  characteristics 
which  are  included  in  the  term  civilisation  ? How  is  it 


THE  AINOS 


257 


that  neither  art  nor  literature  nor  religion,  nor  any 
other  characteristic  of  civilisation  has,  in  the  slightest 
degree,  influenced  this  aboriginal  race?  Indeed,  if  the 
theories  of  ethnologists  in  regard  to  the  Ainos  be  correct, 
and  we  are  to  judge  by  the  ancient  remains  that  have 
been  found  throughout  Japan,  the  Ainos,  when  they  were 
in  undisputed  possession  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago, 
were  in  a much  more  advanced  condition  of  civilisation 
than  they  are  to-day.  The  questions  that  I have  put 
afford  food  for  reflection,  but  they  are  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  answer.  I am  certain,  however,  that  the 
Japanese  Government  desires  to,  if  possible,  preserve  the 
Aino  race  from  extinction,  and  that  it  aspires  to  give  this 
ancient  people  all  the  advantages  of  education  and 
civilisation  generally.  Unfortunately  the  Ainos  them- 
selves are  the  obstacle  to  the  carrying  into  effect  of  this 
project.  They  desire  to  live  their  own  life  in  their  own 
way.  They  have  not  only  no  wish  to  be,  but  they  resent 
any  effort  to  make  them,  either  educated  or  civilised. 
They  are  what  some  people  would  term  children  of 
nature,  out  of  place  decidedly  in  a modern  go-ahead 
eclectic  Power  like  Japan,  but  an  interesting  survival  of 
the  past,  and  likewise  an  interesting  reminder  that  the 
highly  civilised  races  of  to-day  have,  in  their  time,  been 
evolved  from  very  similar  children  of  nature. 


s 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 

“ T N the  Japan  of  to-day  the  world  has  before  it  a unique 
1.  example  of  an  Eastern  people  displaying  the  power 
to  assimilate  and  to  adopt  the  civilisation  of  the  West, 
while  preserving  its  own  national  dignity  unimpaired,” 
aptly  remarks  a modern  writer.  It  is,  indeed,  in  its 
powers  of  assimilation  and  adaptation  that  Japan,  I 
think,  stands  unique  among  not  only  the  nations  of  the 
world  at  the  present  time,  but  amongst  the  nations  of 
whom  we  have  any  historical  record.  In  one  of  his 
books  on  Japan — books  which  I may,  in  passing,  remark 
give  a more  vivid  insight  into  the  life  of  the  Japanese 
people  than  the  works  of  any  other  writer — Mr.  Lafcadio 
Hearn  remarks  that  the  so-called  adoption  of  Western 
civilisation  within  a term  of  comparatively  few  years 
cannot  mean  the  addition  to  the  Japanese  brain  of  any 
organs  or  powers  previously  absent  from  her,  nor  any 
sudden  change  in  the  mental  or  moral  character  of  the 
race.  Changes  of  that  kind  cannot  be  made  in  a genera- 
tion. The  Europeanising  of  Japan,  Mr.  Hearn  in  fact 
suggests,  means  nothing  more  than  the  rearrangement 
of  a part  of  the  pre-existing  machinery  of  thought,  while 
the  mental  readjustments  effected  by  takin?  on  Western 

258 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


259 


civilisation,  or  what  passes  for  it,  have  given  good  results 
only  along  directions  in  which  the  Japanese  people  have 
always  shown  special  capacity.  There  has,  in  a word, 
he  asserts,  been  no  transformation — nothing  more  than 
the  turning  of  old  abilities  into  new  and  larger  channels. 
Indeed  the  tendency  of  the  people  of  Japan,  when  dis- 
passionately investigated,  will  be  seen  to  have  been  always 
moving  in  the  same  direction.  A slight  retrospect  will, 
I think,  clearly  prove  the  truth  of  this  assertion. 

It  is  now  about  fifty  years  since  Japan  was  first 
awakened,  perhaps  rudely  awakened,  from  her  slumber  of 
two  and  a half  centuries.  When  the  European  Powers 
and  the  United  States  of  America  knocked,  perhaps  some- 
what rudely,  at  her  door,  it  turned  slowly  on  its  hinges 
and  creaked  owing  to  the  rust  of  many  long  years.  How 
came  it  that  a country  which  had  imported  its  art,  litera- 
ture, religion,  and  civilisation,  a country  which  until  1868 
had  a mediaeval  feudalism  for  its  social  basis,  a country 
which  until  then  was  notorious  for  the  practice  of  hara-kiri 
and  the  fierceness  of  its  two-sworded  Samurai  should  so 
suddenly  take  on  Western  attributes  and  become  a seat  of 
liberty  and  the  exponent  of  Western  civilisation  in  the 
Far  East  ? All  this  is  to  some  persons  a rather  perplexing 
problem.  But  the  reasons  are  not,  I think,  far  to  seek.  If 
we  go  back  many  centuries  we  shall  find  that  Japan,  though 
always  tenacious  of  her  national  characteristics,  never 
evinced  any  indisposition  to  mingle  with  or  adopt  what 
was  good  in  other  races.  The  national  character  for  many 
hundreds  of  years  has  always  displayed  what  I may  term 
the  germs  of  liberalism,  and  has  not  been  influenced  by 
narrow  and  petty  national  ideals  concerning  the  customs, 
religion,  art,  or  literature  of  other  countries.  As  against 
this  statement  may  be  urged  the  action  of  Japan  in  ex- 


260 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


pelling  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  destroying  thoroughly 
Christianity,  both  buildings  and  converts,  and  effectually 
and  effectively  shutting  the  country  against  all  intercourse 
with  Europe  and  America  for  over  two  centuries.  The 
answer  of  the  Japanese  of  to-day  to  this  question  is  simple 
enough.  They  point  out  that,  although  the  object  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  and  his  missionaries  was  essentially 
spiritual,  viz.,  to  convert  Japan  to  Christianity,  that  of 
many  of  the  foreigners  who  accompanied  or  succeeded 
him  was  not  in  any  sense  spiritual,  but  on  the  contrary 
was  grossly  and  wickedly  material.  Accordingly  Japan, 
having  rightly  or  wrongly  concluded  that  not  only  her 
civilisation  but  her  national  life,  her  independent  existence, 
were  menaced  by  the  presence  and  the  increasing  number 
of  these  foreigners,  she  decided,  on  the  principle  that 
desperate  diseases  require  desperate  remedies,  to  expel 
them  and  to  effectually  seal  her  country  against  any 
possibility  of  future  foreign  invasions.  I am  not,  I may 
remark,  defending  her  action  in  the  matter  ; I am  only 
putting  forward  the  views  of  Japanese  men  of  light  and 
leading  of  to-day  in  regard  thereto. 

When,  many  centuries  ago,  the  Koreans  brought  to 
Japan  the  religion,  laws,  literature,  and  art  of  China,  these 
were  adopted  and  assimilated.  Both  Buddhism  and  Con- 
fucianism existed  side  by  side  in  the  country  with  the  old 
Shinto  religion.  And,  accordingly,  during  the  many 
centuries  which  have  elapsed  since  the  religion  of  China 
and  the  ethical  doctrines  of  her  great  teacher  were  intro- 
duced into  Japan,  there  has  never  been  a violent  conflict 
between  them  and  the  ancient  religion  of  the  country. 
Had  the  Portuguese  invaders  confined  themselves  to  a 
religious  propaganda  only,  the  Christian  converts  they 
made  would  not  have  been  interfered  with  and  the 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


261 


Christian  religion,  strong  and  vigorous,  would  have  existed 
uninterruptedly  in  Japan  until  to-day  side  by  side  with 
Buddhism  and  Shintoism.  When  St.  Francis  Xavier 
came  to  Japan  Buddhism  was  the  prevailing  religion,  and 
it  undoubtedly  had,  as  it  still  has,  a great  hold  upon  the 
people.  But  the  preaching  of  the  intrepid  Jesuit  and  the 
missionaries  he  brought  with  him  had  an  enormous  success. 
The  Christian  religion  was  embraced  by  representatives  of 
every  class.  In  the  year  1550  St.  Francis,  writing  to  Goa, 
placed  on  record  for  all  time  his  opinion  of  the  Japanese. 
“ The  nation,”  writes  he,  “ with  which  we  have  to  deal  here 
surpasses  in  goodness  any  of  the  nations  ever  discovered. 
They  are  of  a kindly  disposition,  wonderfully  desirous  of 
honour,  which  is  placed  above  everything  else.  They 
listen  with  great  avidity  to  discourse  about  God  and  divine 
thingsi  In  the  native  place  of  Paul  they  received  us  very 
kindly,  the  Governor,  the  chief  citizens,  and  indeed  the 
whole  populace.  Give  thanks  to  God  therefore  that  a very 
wide  and  promising  field  is  open  to  you  for  your  well- 
roused  piety  to  spend  its  energies  in.”  It  certainly  was  a 
remarkable  fact  that  a nation  which  had  for  so  many 
centuries  been  under  the  influences  of  Buddhism  should 
have  welcomed  these  Portuguese  missionaries.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  Japan  had  not  that  prejudice 
against  foreigners  which  is  very  often  the  outcome  of 
foreign  conquest  and  foreign  oppression.  No  foreign 
Power  had  ever  conquered  or  indeed  set  its  foot  in  the 
land.  Both  China  and  Korea  had  made  various  attempts 
on  the  independence  of  Japan,  but  unsuccessfully.  Japan 
had  never  had  to  endure  any  humiliation  at  the  hands  of 
foreign  invaders,  consequently  her  nationalism  had  no 
narrow,  selfish  meaning,  and  accordingly  she  saw  no  reason 
for  putting  any  obstacle  in  the  way  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 


262 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


and  his  followers  until  she  concluded,  however  much  or 
little  reason  there  may  have  been  for  her  conclusions,  that 
the  incoming  of  these  foreigners  in  some  measure  menaced 
her  national  existence.  Before  she  arrived  at  that  con- 
clusion she  was  apparently  prepared  to  welcome  all  that 
was  good  in  the  ethical  teaching  of  the  Portuguese  mission- 
aries, and,  if  a section  of  her  population  desired  to  embrace 
a religion  to  whose  ethical  teaching  she  had  no  objection  ; 
there  was  no  reason,  in  her  opinion,  why  that  religion 
should  not  exist  side  by  side  with  those  more  ancient 
religions  which  had  lived  amicably  together  during  many 
centuries. 

For  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  Japan  resolved 
to  remain  in  a state  of  isolation.  Then,  as  I have  said, 
European  Powers  and  the  great  Republic  of  the  West  came 
knocking  and  knocking  loudly  at  her  doors,  and  as  a result 
thereof  her  thinking  men  came  to  realise  that  in  a state  of 
isolation  a continued  civilised  existence  is  impossible. 
Accordingly  Japan,  tentatively  at  first,  opened  certain  por- 
tions of  her  country  to  European  intercourse,  and  as  an 
inevitable  consequence  thereof  found  it  necessary  to  adopt 
European  ideas — and  European  armaments.  The  country 
had  kept  out  the  aggressor  for  some  two  thousand  years 
or  thereabouts,  and  Japan  clearly  saw  that  if  the  aggressor 
was  to  be  kept  out  in  the  future,  the  near  future,  she  would 
probably  have  to  fight  to  maintain  her  national  existence. 
The  war  with  China  was  the  outcome  of  the  feeling  that 
Korea  under  the  suzerainty  of  China  was  a constant 
menace  to  not  only  the  prosperity  but  the  existence  of  the 
Empire.  The  same  feeling  undoubtedly  led  to  the  war 
with  Russia,  as  Japan  considered,  and  rightly  in  my 
opinion,  that  the  possession  of  Korea  by  Russia  meant  the 
loss  of  national  independence.  That  war  was  not  as  so 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


263 


many  wars  have  been,  the  result  of  a racial  hatred,  the 
outcome  of  a spirit  of  revenge,  or  waged  for  aggressive 
designs.  It  was  forced  upon  Japan,  and  was  in  every  sense 
purely  defensive,  Japan  waged  it  confident  in  her  own 
strength  from  the  fact  that  in  the  two  thousand  years  of 
her  history  she  had,  in  all  the  conflicts  in  which  she  had 
engaged,  kept  in  view  the  one  ideal — the  conservation  of 
the  national  existence,  an  ideal  which  she  has  consistently 
realised. 

The  position  of  Japan  at  the  present  moment  is  not  only 
extremely  interesting  but  extraordinary  in  a degree.  She 
is  the  cynosure  for  the  eyes  of  the  civilised  world,  and  for 
some  years  she  has  been  subjected  at  the  hands  of  experts 
and  amateurs  of  all  descriptions  to  the  most  minute  inves- 
tigation. Every  phase  of  her  national  life  has  been  rigidly 
scrutinised  and  exhaustively  written  about.  The  national 
character  and  characteristics  have  undergone  the  most 
intricate  psychological  examination,  and  if  the  world  does 
not  now  know  the  real  Japan  it  is  certainly  not  from  lack 
of  material,  literary  material,  whereon  to  form  a judgment. 
Indeed  the  attention  Japan  has  received  has  been  sufficient 
to  turn  the  head  of  any  people.  I am  not  sure  that 
this  large  output  of  literature  on  matters  Japanese  has 
effected  very  much  in  the  direction  of  enabling  a sound 
judgment  to  be  formed  regarding  the  country  and  the 
people.  Many  writers  who  have  dissertated  upon  Japan 
during  the  past  couple  of  decades  seem  to  have  imagined 
that  they  had  discovered  it,  and  their  impressions  have 
been  penned  from  that  standpoint. 

There  used  some  years  ago  to  be  an  advertisement  of  a 
“ Popular  Educator  ” in  which  a youth  with  a curly  head 
of  hair  and  a face  of  delightful  innocence  was  depicted. 
Underneath  the  portrait  the  inquiry  was  printed,  “ What 


264 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


will  he  become?”  And  there  was  then  given  an  illustrated 
alternative  as  to  the  appearance  of  this  innocent  youth  at 
different  ages  in  his  career  according  to  the  path  he  trod 
in  life.  One  alternative  eventuated  in  the  final  evolution 
of  an  ancient  and,  from  his  appearance,  very  palpable 
villain,  the  other  of  a benevolent-looking  old  gentleman 
who  quite  evidently  only  lived  to  do  good.  It  seems  to 
me  that  a large  number  of  persons  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  are  to-day,  as  they  have  been  for  some  time  past, 
asking  the  question  in  reference  to  Japan,  “What  will  she 
become  ? ” It  is  without  doubt  a highly  intere.sting  inquiry, 
but  the  answer  to  it,  so  far  as  my  knowledge  goes,  is  not 
like  the  advertisement  I have  referred  to,  one  of  two 
courses — the  one  leading  to  perdition,  the  other  to  pros- 
perity. On  the  contrary,  the  answers  seem  to  be  as 
numerous  and  varied  as  the  answerers,  and  most  of  the 
answers  would  appear  to  have  been  arrived  at  simply  and 
merely  by  the  false  premises  and  very  often  the  entirely 
erroneous  “ facts  ” of  the  inquirers, 

A favourite  and  fallacious  method  of  dealing  with  Japan 
is  that  of  regarding  it  as  an  Oriental  nation,  essentially 
Oriental  with  a thin  veneer  of  Occidentalism.  People  who 
so  reason,  or  occasionally  do  not  reason  at  all  but  confine 
themselves  to  mere  assertions,  suggest  that  the  difference 
between  the  Oriental  and  the  Occidental  is  such  that  not 
a few  years  of  perfunctory  contact  but  centuries  of  time 
are  necessary  to  bring  about  a real  transmogrification. 
Persons  who  so  think  point  not  only  to  the  difference  in 
everything  material  in  respect  of  East  and  West,  but  to  a 
radical  difference  in  psychology,  an  entire  distinction  in 
the  mental  outlook  of  each.  They  accordingly  conclude 
that  the  differences  so  evident  on  all  sides  are  not  mere 
accidentals  but  fundamental,  ineradicable.  Scratch  the 


If' 


KIRKWORK.S  IN  TOKK)  (SUMMER) 


,( 


\r 

r * 
t ■ 


Mti 


' i 


»' 


I 


> 


I 


• '> 

f ii*  l! 


rTr-.^-  * 


.1 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


265 


Japanese,  they  in  efifect  say,  and  beneath  his  veneer  of 
civilisation  you  will  find  the  barbarian,  barbarism  and 
Orientalism  being  with  these  persons  synonymous  terms. 
And  if  any  incredulity  in  the  matter  be  expressed  they 
will  triumphantly  point  to  the  recurrence  of  hara-kiri 
among  the  soldiers  and  sailors  in  the  late  war.  A well- 
known  writer  on  racial  psychology  has  expressed  himself 
dogmatically  on  this  very  point.  I will  quote  two  or  three 
of  his  pronouncements  in  the  matter. 

“ Each  race  possesses  a constitution  as  unvarying  as  its 
anatomical  constitution.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
the  former  corresponds  to  a certain  special  structure  of 
the  brain. 

“ A negro  or  a Japanese  may  easily  take  a university 
degree  or  become  a lawyer  ; the  sort  of  varnish  he  thus 
acquires  is,  however,  quite  superficial,  and  has  no  influence 
on  his  mental  constitution.  . . . What  no  education  can 
give  him  because  they  are  created  by  heredity  alone,  are 
the  forms  of  thought,  the  logic,  and,  above  all,  the  character 
of  the  Western  man. 

“ Cross-breeding  constitutes  the  only  infallible  means  at 
our  disposal  of  transforming  in  a fundamental  manner 
the  character  of  a people,  heredity  being  the  only  force 
powerful  enough  to  contend  with  heredity.  Cross-breed- 
ing allows  of  the  creation  of  a new  race,  possessing  new 
physical  and  psychological  characteristics.” 

Now,  whether  these  views  be  correct  in  the  main  or 
partially  correct  as  regards  other  races,  I have  no  hesi- 
tation in  describing  them  as  inaccurate  to  a degree  in 
reference  to  the  Japanese.  Not  peculiar  brain  formation, 
but  social  evolution,  environment,  education  are  responsible 
for  the  traits  which  distinguish  the  Japanese  from  other 
Eastern  nations.  To  assert,  as  do  some  psychological 


266 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


experts,  that  the  mental  constitution  of  races  is  as  dis- 
tinct and  unchangeable  as  their  physiological  or  anatomi- 
cal characteristics  is,  to  my  mind,  a fact  not  borne  out  by 
the  history  of  the  world.  Physiological  or  anatomical 
distinctions  are  apparent,  and  can  be  classified  ; mental 
idiosyncrasies  do  not  lend  themselves  to  cataloguing.  It 
is,  I know,  possible  to  draw  up  at  any  particular  period  a 
list  of  what  I may  term  the  idiosyncrasies  of  any  race  at 
that  period.  A writer  in  a London  newspaper  some  little 
time  back  attempted  to  do  so  in  reference  to  Oriental 
races  generally.  He  enumerated  the  degraded  position 
of  women,  the  licentiousness  of  the  men,  the  recognition 
and  prevalence  of  prostitution,  the  non-desire  of  the 
youth  for  play,  contempt  for  Western  civilisation,  and 
general  hatred  of  foreigners.  Admitting  these  charges 
to  be  correct,  the  characteristics  detailed  are,  I may 
point  out,  merely  ephemeral  incidents.  A contempt  for 
Western  civilisation  and  hatred  of  the  foreigner,  for 
example,  which  was  certainly  at  one  time  pronounced 
in  Japan,  are  rapidly  passing  away.  The  position  of 
women  in  that  country  has  also  greatly  improved,  just 
as  it  has  improved  in  Europe,  while  as  regards  prostitu- 
tion and  licentiousness  Europe  has,  in  my  opinion,  no 
need  to  throw  stones. 

There  are  undoubtedly  a large  number  of  persons  who 
are  convinced,  or  have  been  convinced,  by  the  arguments 
of  others,  that  the  progress  of  Japan  is  a mere  mushroom 
growth  which  cannot  last.  A few  years  ago  one  of  the 
leading  English  papers  in  Japan  attempted,  to  some 
extent,  to  voice  this  opinion  in  an  article  striking  the  note 
of  warning  for  the  benefit  of  the  West  against  putting  too 
much  faith  in  those  writers  who  had  intimately  studied 
Japan  from  within,  and  whose  works  were  in  general 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


267 


appreciation  not  only  for  their  literary  style,  but  for  the 
vivid  insight  they  gave  into  everything  respecting  the 
country.  Quoth  the  journal  in  question : — 

“ In  the  case  of  such  writers  as  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  and 
Mr.  Lafcadio  Hearn,  it  is  quite  apparent  that  the  logical 
faculty  is  in  abeyance.  Imagination  reigns  supreme.  As 
poetic  flights  or  outbursts  the  works  of  these  authors  on 
Japan  are  delightful  reading.  But  no  one  who  has  studied 
the  Japanese  in  a deeper  manner,  by  more  intimate  daily 
intercourse  with  all  classes  of  the  people  than  either  of 
these  writers  pretends  to  have  had,  can  possibly  regard  a 
large  part  of  their  description  as  anything  more  than 
pleasing  fancy.  Both  have  given  rein  to  the  poetic 
fancy,  and  thus  have,  from  a purely  literary  point  of 
view,  scored  a success  granted  to  few.  . . . But  as  ex- 
ponents of  Japanese  life  and  thought  they  are  unreliable. 
. . . They  have  given  form  and  beauty  to  much  that  never 
existed,  except  in  vague  outline  or  in  undeveloped  germs 
in  the  Japanese  mind.  In  doing  this  they  have  unavoid- 
ably been  guilty  of  misrepresentation.  . . . The  Japanese 
nation  of  Arnold  and  Hearn  is  not  the  nation  we  have 
known  for  a quarter  of  a century,  but  a purely  ideal  one 
manufactured  out  of  the  author’s  brains.  It  is  high  time 
that  this  was  pointed  out.  For  while  such  works  please  a 
certain  section  of  the  English  public,  they  do  a great  deal 
of  harm  among  a section  of  the  Japanese  public,  as  could 
be  easily  shown  in  detail  did  space  allow.” 

I quite  admit  the  fact  that  many  Japanese  themselves 
are  quite  convinced  that  there  is  a great  gulf  fixed  between 
the  ideas  and  the  philosophy  of  Europe  and  those  of  the 
East,  their  own  country  included.  In  a book  dealing  par- 
ticularly with  the  art  of  Japan,  written  in  English  by  a 
Japanese,  he  attempts  to  emphasise  this  matter.  He 


268 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


remarks  : “ Asia  is  one.  The  Himalayas  divide  only  to 
accentuate  two  mighty  civilisations — the  Chinese,  with 
its  communism  of  Confucius,  and  the  Indian,  with  its 
individualism  of  the  Vedas,  But  not  even  the  snowy 
barriers  can  interrupt  for  one  moment  that  broad 
expanse  of  love  for  the  Ultimate  and  Universal  which 
is  the  common-thought  inheritance  of  every  Asiatic  race, 
enabling  them  to  produce  all  the  great  religions  of  the 
world,  and  distinguishing  them  from  those  maritime 
people  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Baltic  who  loved 
to  dwell  on  the  particular,  and  to  search  out  the  means 
not  the  end  of  life.”  Indeed,  the  writer  of  this  book  appears 
to  be  in  a condition  of  transcendentalism  in  reference  to  the 
East.  In  another  portion  of  it  he  waxes  eloquent  in  regard 
to  what  he  terms  the  glory  of  Asia,  in  language  which  I 
will  briefly  quote.  He  remarks : — 

“ But  the  glory  of  Asia  is  something  more  positive 
than  these.  It  lies  in  that  vibration  of  peace  that  beats 
in  every  heart  ; that  harmony  which  brings  together 
emperor  and  peasant ; that  sublime  intuition  of  oneness 
which  commands  all  sympathy,  all  courtesy,  to  be  its 
fruits,  making  Takakura,  Emperor  of  Japan,  remove  his 
sleeping  robes  on  a winter  night  because  the  frost  lay 
cold  on  the  hearths  of  his  poor;  or  Taiso  of  Tang  forego 
food  because  his  people  were  feeling  the  pinch  of  famine ; 
. . . it  lies  in  that  worship  of  feeling  which  casts  around 
poverty  the  halo  of  greatness,  impresses  his  stern  sim- 
plicity of  apparel  on  the  Indian  prince,  and  sets  up  in 
China  a throne  whose  imperial  occupant — alone  amongst 
the  great  secular  rulers  of  the  world — never  wears  a 
sword.” 

It  were  unkind  to  criticise  eloquence  of  this  description 
too  seriously.  The  fact,  if  it  be  a fact,  that  the  Emperor 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


269 


of  China  never  wears  a sword  is  in  one  sense  interesting 
but  it  proves  nothing.  It  is  well  to  get  down  from 
eloquence  of  this  kind  to  concrete  facts,  to  come  back 
to  the  point  whence  we  started,  viz..  What  will  Japan 
become  ? What  is  her  present  condition  ? Any  one  who 
compares  the  Japan  of  to-day  with  the  Japan  of,  say, 
thirty  or  forty  years  ago  will,  I think,  impatiently  sweep 
aside  some  of  the  absurd  theories  to  which  I have 
referred,  psychological  and  otherwise.  The  unprejudiced 
man,  letting  his  mind  indulge  in  retrospect,  and  comparing 
that  retrospective  view  with  the  present  actuality,  will,  I 
believe,  have  no  difficulty  in  determining  that  though 
Japan  is  and  must  remain  an  Oriental  nation,  what  she 
has  acquired  of  recent  years  is  neither  veneer  or  varnish, 
but  has  been  assimilated  into  the  very  system  of  the 
people.  Very  probably  Japan  will  never  become 
thoroughly  Occidentalised.  There  are  many  of  us  who 
hope  she  never  may.  I believe,  however,  that  in  adopt- 
ing many  Occidental  customs  and  habits  she  will  adapt 
and  modify  them  to  her  own  needs,  and  in  due  course 
evolve  a race  neither  distinctly  Occidental  nor  Oriental 
while  retaining  many  of  her  past  customs  and  her  ancient 
characteristics.  She  will,  in  a word,  be  as  far  as  possible 
an  eclectic  nation,  and  it  is,  so  far  as  I know,  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  world  that  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  develop  such. 

There  are,  I know,  many  people  in  Europe  as  well  as  in 
Japan  who  feel  and  express  some  apprehension  in  regard 
to  what  they  term  young  Japan.  This  term,  like  many 
other  terms,  has  never  been  accurately  defined,  but  I take 
it  to  mean  that  portion  of  the  country  consisting  of  the 
young  or  younger  men  who  have  been  educated  accord- 
ing to  Western  ideas,  have  acquired  Western  modes  of 


270 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


thought,  and  have  developed — I do  not  use  the  word  in 
an  opprobious  sense — a bumptiousness.  It  is  assumed, 
on  what  grounds  I know  not,  that  this  section — it  must 
after  all  be  a small  section — of  the  population  of  the 
country  has  aspirations  to  make  things  “ hum,”  if  I may 
use  an  expressive  bit  of  American  slang.  Young  Japan, 
we  are  led  to  believe,  is  intensely  ambitious  and  extremely 
cocksure.  It  cannot  and  will  not  go  slow ; on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  in  a fearful  hurry,  and  is  in  reference  to  every 
matter  political,  commercial,  religious,  a hustler.  It  has 
no  doubts  upon  any  subject,  and  no  difficulty  in  regard  to 
making  up  its  mind  on  any  matter.  This  is  what  we  hear 
and  read.  How  much  of  it  all  is  true  I know  not.  I am 
very  largely  of  opinion  that  this  representation  of  young 
Japan  is  altogether  a caricature.  Youth  we  know  in 
every  clime  is  impulsive  and  impetuous.  There  is  no 
need  to  go  to  Japan  to  convince  ourselves  of  that  fact. 
But  youth,  if  it  have  these  defects,  also  possesses  enthu- 
siasm, and  I should  be  inclined  to  describe  that  as  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  characteristics  of  the  youth  of  Japan. 
After  all,  time  will  cure  Young  Japan  of  some  of  its 
defects.  Young  Japan  will  grow  old,  and  if  it  loses  its 
enthusiasm  it  will  gain  experience.  I not  only  have  no 
fear  of  these  vivacious  young  men  who  love  their  country 
and  are  proud  of  it.  I regard  them  not  as  a danger,  but 
as  a pleasing  feature  in  the  progress  of  Japan,  and  a potent 
factor  in  its  future  prosperity. 

The  writers  and  critics  to  whom  I have  referred  in  this 
chapter  seem  to  be  oblivious  of  the  fact  that  progress  is 
the  law  of  nature.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  either 
climate  or  race.  1 admit  that  it  may  be  affected  by 
environment  or  other  causes  of  a temporary  nature.  The 
Occidental  visiting  the  East  sees  things  that  are  strange 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


271 


to  him — a people,  the  colour  of  whose  skin  and  the 
contour  of  whose  features  are  different  to  his  own  ; cos- 
tume, style  of  architecture,  and  many  other  matters 
entirely  dissimilar  to  what  he  has  viewed  in  his  own 
country.  He  accordingly  jumps  to  the  absolutely 
erroneous  conclusion  that  these  people  are  uncivilised, 
and  that  their  lack  of  civilisation  is  due  to  some  mental 
warp  or  some  defect  in  either  the  structure  or  the  size 
of  their  brain.  Of  course  such  a conception  is  entirely 
erroneous,  and  yet  it  is  marvellous  to  what  an  extent  it 
prevails.  These  people  are  for  all  practical  purposes  the 
same  as  himself,  except  that  they  have  been  affected  by 
various  matters  and  circumstances  that  I have  called 
ephemeral.  What  a nation,  like  an  individual,  needs  is 
the  formation  of  a distinct  character.  Now,  the  character 
of  a nation  depends,  in  my  opinion,  on  the  high  or  low 
estimate  it  has  formed  as  to  the  meaning  and  purpose  of 
life,  and  also  the  extent  to  which  it  adheres  to  the 
unwritten  moral  law,  which  is,  after  all,  something 
superior  to,  because  higher  than,  mere  legal  enactments, 
I confess  that  as  I wander  about  this  marvellous  country 
of  Japan,  as  I mingle  with  its  common  people  and  see 
them  in  various  phases  of  their  lives  I say  to  myself,  as 
St.  Francis  Xavier  said  of  them  more  than  three  hundred 
years  ago,  “ This  nation  is  the  delight  of  my  soul.”  The 
critic,  the  hypercritic,  is  everywhere.  He  suspects  every- 
body and  everything.  He  can  find  occult  motives  and 
psychological  reasons  for  everything.  I confess  I am  a 
trifle  tired  of  the  critic,  especially  the  psychological  critic, 
in  reference  to  Japan.  I view  the  people  there  as  they 
are  to-day,  and  I have  satisfied  myself  that  we  can  see  at 
work  in  Japan  the  formation  of  a nation  with  a character. 
I care  not  to  investigate  the  mental  processes  at  work,  or 


272 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  difference  between  the  brain  of  the  Japanese  and  the 
brain  of  the  European.  I do  see  this,  however,  that  the 
leaders  of  the  people,  the  educated  and  cultured  classes  of 
the  land,  are  intent  on  cutting  out  of  the  national  character 
anything  which  is  indefensible,  or  has  been  found  unser- 
viceable, and  equally  intent  on  adopting  and  adapting 
from  any  and  every  nation  such  qualities  as  it  is  con- 
sidered would  the  better  enable  Japan  to  advance  on 
the  paths  of  progress  and  freedom,  illuminating  her  way 
as  a nation  and  as  a people  by  a shining  illustration  of  all 
that  is  best  in  the  world,  having  sloughed  off  voluntarily 
and  readily  every  characteristic,  however  ancient,  which 
reason  and  justice  and  experience  had  shown  to  be 
unworthy  of  a power  aspiring  to  stand  out  prominently 
before  the  world. 

In  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock’s  work  on  Japan,  “The  Capital 
of  the  Tycoon,”  published  some  forty-four  years  ago,  a 
work  which,  as  I have  elsewhere  said,  is  of  undoubted 
value  though  somewhat  marred  by  the  prejudices  of  the 
author,  he  attempted  a forecast  of  the  future  of  the 
country,  but,  like  so  many  prophets,  his  vaticinations 
have  proved  highly  inaccurate.  “Japan,”  he  remarked, 
“ is  on  the  great  highway  of  nations,  the  coveted  of  Russia, 
the  most  absorbing,  if  not  the  most  aggressive  of  all  the 
Powers ; and  a perpetual  temptation  alike  to  merchant 
and  to  missionary,  who,  each  in  different  directions,  find- 
ing the  feudalism  and  spirit  of  isolation  barriers  to  their 
path,  will  not  cease  to  batter  them  in  breach,  or  under- 
mine them  to  their  downfall.  Such  seems  to  be  the  prob- 
able fate  of  Japan,  and  its  consummation  is  little  more 
than  a question  of  time.  When  all  is  accomplished, 
whether  the  civilising  process  will  make  them  as  a people 
wiser,  better,  or  happier,  is  a problem  of  more  doubtful 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


273 


solution.  One  thing  is  quite  certain,  that  the  obstructive 
principle  which  tends  to  the  rejection  of  all  Western  inno- 
vations and  proselytism  as  abominations,  is  much  too 
active  and  vigorous  in  the  Japanese  mind  to  leave  a hope 
that  there  will  not  be  violent  and  obstinate  resistance ; 
and  this  inevitably  leading  to  corresponding  violence  in 
the  assault,  there  must  be  a period  of  convulsion  and  dis- 
order before  the  change  can  be  effected,  and  new  foun- 
dations laid  for  another  social  edifice.”  Whether  the 
civilising  process  will  make  the  Japanese  people  wiser, 
better,  or  happier  is  the  problem  the  answer  to  which  can 
only  be  given  in  the  future.  Obviously  we  are  not  in  a 
position  to  completely  answer  this  question  to-day.  In- 
deed, before  answering  it  at  any  time  it  might  be  advisable 
to  invite  the  definition  of  wisdom  and  happiness.  There 
were  wisdom  and  happiness  long  prior  to  the  time  when 
the  merchant  and  the  missionary  to  whom  Sir  Rutherford 
Alcock  refers  battered  and  undermined  Japan’s  feudalism 
and  spirit  of  isolation.  But,  mirable  dictu,  Japan,  instead  of 
developing  that  obstructive  principle  which  Sir  Ruther- 
ford considered  was  so  active  and  vigorous  in  the  Japanese 
mind  has,  on  the  contrary,  developed  a spirit  of  adap- 
tation and  assimilation  of  Western  innovations,  and  in 
so  doing  has  in  all  probability  saved  herself  from  the 
cupidity  not  only  of  Russia,  but  of  other  Western  Powers. 
Sir  Rutherford  Alcock  was  not  a psychologist,  but  quite 
evidently  he  too  misread  the  Japanese  mind  and  its 
workings. 

Truth  to  tell,  Japan  as  it  is  to-day  gives  the  lie  to  nearly 
all  the  prophets,  and  demonstrates  that  the  psychologist 
is  merely  a charlatan.  Her  development,  her  evolution 
has  proceeded  along  no  particular  lines.  The  fearful  and 
awful  rocks  in  the  way,  mediaevalism  and  feudalism,  were 

T 


274 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


got  rid  of  almost  with  a stroke  of  the  pen,  and  everybody 
in  Japan  from  the  Emperor  to  the  peasant,  has  adapted 
himself  to  the  changed  order  of  things.  It  is  the  most 
wonderful  transformation  scene  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
and  it  is  still  in  progress.  What  the  end  of  it  all  will  be 
I have,  bearing  the  dangers  of  prophecy  well  in  mind, 
attempted  to  show  in  a final  chapter.  But  I may  remark 
that  nothing  in  regard  to  the  forces  at  work  in  Japan 
of  recent  years,  and  the  outcome  of  the  same  so  far  gives 
me  at  any  rate  more  unmixed  pleasure  than  the  way  in 
which  the  theorists  have  been  confounded,  those  men 
who  cut  and  carve  and  label  human  beings,  whether  indi- 
vidually or  in  the  aggregate,  as  if  they  were  mere  blocks 
of  wood.  The  Oriental  mind,  we  have  been  told,  cannot 
do  this  ; Oriental  prejudices  and  idiosyncrasies  and  modes 
of  thought  and  hereditary  influences  will  not  admit  of 
that ; the  traditions  of  the  Far  East,  that  mysterious 
thing,  will  prevent  the  other — we  have  been  told  all  this, 
I repeat,  and  told  it  ad  nauseam.  Japan  as  it  is  to-day 
refutes  these  prophecies,  these  dogmatic  pronouncements, 
psychical  and  ethnological.  The  Japanese  race,  when  re- 
garded from  what  I deem  to  be  the  only  correct  stand- 
point for  forming  a sound  judgment  as  to  the  position 
it  holds  among  the  races  of  the  world,  namely,  in  respect 
of  the  size  and  convolution  of  the  brain,  occupies  in  my 
opinion  a high,  a very  high  place.  All  other  factors,  often 
given  such  undue  prominence  in  forming  an  estimate  as 
to  the  character  of  any  people  I regard  as  mere  acci- 
dentals. The  story  of  Japan  during  the  last  thirty  or 
forty  years  affords  ample  proof  of  what  I have  said ; the 
position  of  the  country  to-day  offers  visible  demonstration 
of  it.  Japan  has  reached  and  will  keep  the  position  of  a 
great  Power,  and  the  Japanese  that  of  a great  people,  just 


JAPAN  AS  IT  IS  TO-DAY 


275 


because  of  the  preponderating  mental  abilities  of  the 
population  of  the  country,  its  capacity  for  assimilation, 
its  desire  for  knowledge,  its  pertinacity,  strenuousness,  and 
aspirations  to  possess  and  acquire  by  the  process  of  selec- 
tion the  very  best  the  world  can  give  it. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN — PHYSICAL — MORAL — MENTAL 

I KNOW  by  experience,  even  if  the  history  of  the  world 
had  not  furnished  many  examples  to  prove  it,  that 
prophecy  is  risky.  It  is  a fascinating  pastime  inasmuch 
as  it  affords  the  imaginative  faculties  full  scope,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  is  a mistake  to  let  the  imagination  run 
riot.  I have  no  intention,  in  considering  the  future  of 
Japan,  of  depicting  an  Arcadia  or  a Utopia  the  outcome 
of  one’s  desire  rather  than  of  the  knowledge  that  one 
possesses  of  the  possibilities  of  the  country  and  the  belief 
that  in  due  course  those  possibilities  will  become  actu- 
alities. Of  course  I admit  that  I may  be  mistaken  in  my 
estimate  of  the  future,  but  I think  an  estimate  of  the 
future  can  only  be  based  on  a knowledge  of  the  present, 
and  it  is  upon  that  knowledge  that  I mean  to  attempt 
some  forecast  of  what  I believe  to  be  the  destiny  of  Japan. 

“The  Future  of  Japan”  is  a theme  that  has  exercised 
the  pens  of  many  writers,  who  have  given  to  the  world 
many  and  most  divergent  views  in  regard  thereto — the 
result,  I think,  of  regarding  the  subj’ect  from  a narrow  or 
single  point  of  view,  instead  of  looking  at  it  broadly, 
boldly,  and  dispassionately.  In  respect  of  a population 
of  between  forty  and  fifty  millions  in  rapid  process  of 

276 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


277 


transformation  and  taking  on  perhaps  rather  hurriedly, 
and,  it  may  be,  some  superfluous  or  unnecessary  attributes 
of  Western  civilisation,  it  is  not  only  possible  but  easy  to 
light  on  many  ludicrous  incidents  and  draw  absolutely 
false  conclusions  from  them.  One  visitor  to  Japan,  for 
example,  who  wrote  a series  of  essays  on  that  country, 
since  produced  in  book  form,  the  laudable  object  of  which 
was  to  present  to  the  British  public  the  real  Japan  with  a 
view  of  counteracting  the  effects  of  those  “ superficial 
narratives  to  be  found  by  the  dozen  in  circulating  libraries 
of  the  personal  views  and  experiences  of  almost  every 
literary  wayfarer  who  has  crossed  the  Pacific,”  has  fol- 
lowed this  bad  plan  in  his  remarks  on  “The  Future  of 
Japan.”  Imitation  for  imitation’s  sake  is,  or  was,  in  his 
opinion,  a growing  evil  in  Japan.  A certain  gentleman, 
he  relates,  a wealthy  merchant  of  Osaka,  desired  to  cele- 
brate the  two  hundredth  anniversary  of  a copper  mine 
coming  into  the  possession  of  his  family.  The  plan  he 
finally  decided  to  adopt  was  to  present  each  of  his  three 
hundred  employees  with  a swallow-tail  coat.  Another 
Japanese  gentleman,  who  had  fallen  in  with  the  habit  of 
the  New  Year’s  Day  call  imitated  from  the  Americans, 
improved  upon  it  by  leaving  on  his  doorstep  a large  box 
with  a lid  and  this  notice  above  it:  “To  Visitors.  I am  out, 
but  I wish  you  a Happy  New  Year  all  the  same.  N.B. — 
Please  drop  your  New  Year’s  Presents  into  the  box.” 
Over  a well-known  tobacconist’s  shop  the  writer  of  the 
book  in  question  observed  the  following  notice : “ When 
we  first  opened  our  tobacco  store  at  Tokio  our  establish- 
ment was  patronised  by  Miss  Nakakoshi,  a celebrated 
beauty  of  Inamato-ro,  Shin-yoshiwara,  and  she  would 
only  smoke  tobacco  purchased  at  our  store.  Through 
her  patronage  our  tobacco  became  widely  known,  so  we 


278 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


call  it  by  the  name  of  Ima  Nakakoshi.  And  we  beg  to 
assure  the  public  that  it  is  as  fragrant  and  sweet  as  the 
young  lady  herself.  Try  it  and  you  will  find  our  words 
prove  true.”  Finally,  over  a pastry-cook’s  shop  in  Tokio 
he  read  and  made  a note  of  the  following : “ Cakes  and 
Infections.” 

Now  what  do  these  several  trivial,  indeed  contemptible, 
anecdotes  prove  ? What  arguments  in  regard  to  a nation 
of  forty-seven  millions  of  people  can  be  bolstered  up  by 
instancing  the  imperfect  acquaintance  of  a Japanese  pastry- 
cook with  the  English  language  ? The  writer  does  not  in 
so  many  words  delineate  the  future  of  Japan  as  it  appears 
to  him,  but  he  suggests  it,  and  his  Japan  of  the  future  is 
quite  evidently  to  be  nothing  more  or  less  than  a kind  of 
international  dustheap  whereon  Europe  and  America  have 
dumped  all  that  is  bad  and  rotten  and  deplorable  in  their 
modern  social  and  political  life.  Here  is  the  inferential 
forecast  of  the  gentleman  in  question  : “ When  Japan 

rings  with  the  rattle  of  machinery  ; when  the  railway 
has  become  a feature  of  her  scenery  ; when  the  boiler- 
chimney  has  defaced  her  choicest  spots,  as  the  paper- 
makers  have  already  obliterated  the  delights  of  Oji ; when 
the  traditions  of  yashiki  and  shizoku  alike  are  all  finally 
engulfed  in  the  barrack-room  ; when  her  art  reckons  its 
output  by  the  thousand  dozen  ; when  the  power  in  the  land 
is  shared  between  the  politician  and  the  plutocrat ; when 
the  peasant  has  been  exchanged  for  the  “ factory  hand,” 
the  kimono  for  the  slop-suit,  the  tea-house  for  the  music- 
hall,  the  geisha  for  the  lion  comique,  and  the  daimio  for 
the  beer-peer — will  Japan  then  have  made  a wise  bargain, 
and  will  she,  looking  backward,  date  a happier  era  from 
the  day  we  forced  our  acquaintance  upon  her  at  the 
cannon’s  mouth  ? ” 


Sir.N  OK  TIIK  TIMKS 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


279 


Criticism  of  this  kind,  if  it  may  be  dignified  by  that 
term,  no  doubt  affords  opportunity  for  what  is  considered 
smart  writing,  and  enables  the  persons  indulging  in  it  to 
air  their  witticisms  and  show  their  sense  of  the  humorous, 
but  it  not  only  serves  no  useful  purpose,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  pernicious  in  its  effects,  inasmuch  as  it  occasions, 
not  unnaturally,  a feeling  of  soreness  on  the  part  of  those, 
whether  individuals  or  a nation,  who  are  made  the  subject 
of  it.  Japan  has  too  often  been  the  butt  of  the  humourist. 
I have  no  desire  to  deprecate  humour,  which  no  doubt 
gives  a savour  to  life,  but  that  humour  which  is  only 
exercised  at  the  expense  of  others,  in  my  opinion,  needs 
reprobation.  As  I have  said,  Japan  among  nations  has 
been  subjected  to  too  much  of  it,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  in  future  writers  about  the  country  will  endeavour  to 
avoid  making  their  little  jokes,  or  serving  up  afresh  the 
antiquated  chestnuts  of  the  foreign  community. 

The  future  of  Japan  may,  I think,  be  considered 
under  some  half-dozen  headings : The  physical  improve- 
ment of  the  Japanese  race  ; Its  moral  advancement  ; 
Its  intellectual  advancement  ; Japan’s  national  future ; 
Her  political  future ; and  finally,  The  influence  of  the 
Japanese  Empire  on  other  Far  Eastern  races  and  on  the 
world  generally. 

As  regards  the  physical  improvement  of  the  race,  I 
admit  this  is  a somewhat  difficult  subject  in  regard  to 
which  to  make  any  forecast.  The  stature  of  the  Japanese 
is  undoubtedly  small,  and  the  chest  measurement  small 
likewise.  At  the  same  time,  anyone  moving  about  Japan 
must  have  noticed  the  fact  that  there  are  quite  a large 
number  of  very  tall  men  and  women  in  the  country,  and 
that  a goodly  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  compare 
favourably  in  their  physical  attributes  with  European 


280 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


people.  As  I have  observed  elsewhere  in  this  book,  the 
dietary  of  the  Japanese  race  has  for  many  centuries  back 
been  almost  entirely  a vegetarian  one.  I know  very  well 
that  vegetarianism  has  its  advocates,  and  some  of  the 
arguments  put  forward  in  support  of  it  are  plausible  if  not 
convincing.  At  the  same  time,  I think,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  those  races  which  have  been  in  the  habit  of  eating 
meat  for  many  centuries  have,  as  regards  physique,  demon- 
strated that  whether  man  was  or  was  not  intended  to  be  a 
carnivorous  animal,  his  development  into  a carnivorous 
animal  has  at  any  rate  succeeded  in  enhancing  and  de- 
veloping his  physical  powers.  Of  late  years  there  has  been 
possibly  as  the  result  of  intercourse  with  Europeans,  a 
large  increase  in  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Japan 
who  eat  meat.  This  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  popula- 
tion is  growing,  and  I believe  in  the  course  of  compara- 
tively few  years  there  will  be  a radical  change  in  the  dietary 
of  the  people.  This  change,  if  it  be  effected,  must,  I would 
suggest,  have  a material  Influence  on  their  physique.  We 
all  know  that  food  is  essential  for  the  building  up  of  the 
human  frame  and  its  maintenance,  and  I think  there  are  few 
people  who  would  question  the  fact  that  the  condition  of 
the  human  frame,  whether  in  individuals  or  the  aggregates 
of  individuals  that  we  term  nations,  must  be  largely 
affected  by  the  food  partaken  of  I,  accordingly,  look 
forward,  not  immediately  of  course,  to  a material  change 
in  the  general  physique  of  the  Japanese  people.  I am 
not,  as  I know  some  persons  are,  of  opinion  that  that 
change  is  likely  to  be  brought  about  by  intermarriage  or 
unions  of  a temporary  nature  between  Japanese  and 
Europeans.  There  have  been  a few  marriages,  and 
there  have  no  doubt  been  a good  many  unions,  but  the 
effect  on  the  national  breed  has  been  small,  and  though 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


281 


it  may  be  to  some  extent  greater  in  the  future,  I do 
not  look  in  this  direction  for  any  alteration  in  the 
physical  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  people.  That 
alteration  will,  in  my  opinion,  be  brought  about  by  a 
change  in  the  food  of  the  people. 

As  regards  the  moral  advancement  of  the  Japanese 
race  I shall  say  little,  for  the  somewhat  paradoxical 
reason  that  it  is  a matter  on  which  so  much  might  be 
said.  Indeed,  this  is  a subject  on  which  a definition  of 
the  term  moral  might  be  advisable  before  entering  into 
any  prolonged  consideration  of  it.  I shall  not  attempt 
that  definition,  simply  because  I feel  convinced  that  to 
do  so  would  be  to  provoke  controversy.  As  I have 
said  in  this  book,  moral,  morality,  and  immorality  are 
all  terms  that  have  to  some  extent  lost  their  original 
meaning.  I may  say  briefly  in  this  connection  that  I 
use  the  term  moral  advancement  simply  and  solely  in 
respect  of  the  practice  of  the  duties  of  life  from  a high 
ethical  point  of  view.  That  is,  I know,  a somewhat 
vague  definition,  but  I think  it  will  serve  its  purpose. 
Ever  since  Japan  has  been  thrown  open  to  foreigners  we 
have  heard  a good  deal  about  morality  and  immorality, 
both  in  the  strict  and  the  perverted  sense  of  those 
words.  The  European  who  came  there,  male  and  female, 
was,  or  affected  to  be,  shocked  at  the  relations  between 
the  sexes  he  found  prevailing.  He  saw  prostitution 
recognised  and  regulated.  He  heard  of,  and  in  the  old 
days  possibly  saw,  something  of  phallic  worship.  He 
witnessed  or  heard  of  men  and  women  making  their 
ablutions  together  in  public  wash-houses,  and  he — some- 
times it  was  a she — affected  to  be  horrified  at  such  a pro- 
ceeding. Better,  much  better,  it  was  inferred,  the  custom 
of  the  lower  classes  in  England,  never  to  wash  at  all. 


282 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


than  this  horrible  outrage  on  public  decency.  And  then 
the  merchant  or  the  trader  who  came  to  Japan,  he 
also  prated  about  commercial  immorality,  and  the  pre- 
valence of  untruthfulness  among  the  Japanese  with 
whom  he  did  business.  And  in  other  directions  too 
there  were  criticisms  passed  upon  Japanese  manners  and 
customs,  and  many  of  these  were  condemned  and 
denounced  as  immoral  or  wicked  very  often  for  no 
better  reason  than  that  they  differed  from  those  that 
obtained  in  Europe.  However  much  or  little  ground 
there  may  have  been  for  these  charges  against  the 
Japanese  people,  I am  not  now  concerned  to  discuss. 
One  thing  I will  remark — that  the  Japanese  possess 
two  religions  which,  whatever  their  effects  and  no  matter 
to  what  extent  superstition  may  have  been  engrafted 
on  them,  have  always  held  up  a high  moral  standard. 
And  if  one  dips  even  cursorily  into  the  writings  of  the 
ethical  teachers  of  Japan  in  the  past,  we  invariably  find 
the  inculcation  of  an  exalted  standard  of  morals.  In- 
deed, the  practice  of  the  Japanese  people  at  the  present 
time,  as  in  all  times  in  regard  to  the  relations  between 
parents  and  children,  of  wife  to  husband,  of  the  people 
to  the  State,  have  been  beyond  criticism.  In  these 
matters  Western  nations  have  much  to  learn  from 
them.  Since  the  opening  of  the  country  to  Europe, 
the  Japanese  Government  has  shown  itself  alive  to 
European  criticism  on  many  points.  It  has  effectually 
stamped  out  phallic  worship ; it  has,  in  deference  to 
European  susceptibilities,  abolished  mixed  bathing  in 
the  public  wash-houses ; and  in  various  other  wa3'-s  it 
has  striven  in  the  direction  of  raising  the  standard  of 
moral  conduct  throughout  the  country.  That  it  has  not 
attempted  to  put  down  prostitution,  but,  on  the  contrary. 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


283 


has  recognised  and  regulated  it,  has  been  made  a charge 
against  it.  The  Japanese  Government  has  most  likely 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  prostitution  cannot  be  put 
down,  and  such  being  the  case  it  has  decided  that,  with 
a view  of  obviating  those  evils  which  are  the  out- 
come of  it,  the  only  alternative  is  to  regulate  it.  I 
admit  that  in  an  ideal  state  of  existence  prostitution 
would  not  exist,  but  no  country  in  the  world  has  yet 
reached  or  approximated  that  ideal  state.  The  evil  of 
prostitution  is  just  as  flagrant  in  Europe  as  in  the 
East,  but  Japan  so  far  alone  among  the  Great  Powers 
of  the  world  has  seen  fit  to  tackle  this  difficult  and 
delicate  matter,  and  to  some  extent  regulate  it.  That 
her  rulers  look  forward  to  the  time  when  the  Yoshi- 
wara  shall  have  ceased  to  exist  I firmly  believe,  and 
I am  convinced  that  they  mean  to  do  everything 
possible  towards  that  consummation.  But  the  rulers 
of  Japan  are  not  mere  sentimentalists ; they  have  to 
recognise  facts,  and  recognising  facts  they  have  done 
what  seems  best  to  them  under  the  circumstances. 

As  regards  commercial  morality,  I believe  even  the 
European  merchants  and  traders  in  the  country  admit 
that  there  has  of  late  years  been  a marked  improvement. 
In  old  Japan  commercialism  was  looked  down  upon. 
Making  a profit  out  of  buying  and  selling  was  regarded 
as  degrading ; those  who  indulged  in  such  practices  were 
despised,  and  not  unnaturally  the  trader,  finding  himself  a 
member  of  a contemned  class,  lived  down  to  the  low  level 
on  which  he  had  been  placed.  In  old  Japan  traders,  in 
the  presence  of  the  Samurai,  were,  when  addressing  him, 
required  to  touch  the  ground  with  their  foreheads  ; when 
talking  to  him  they  had  to  keep  their  hands  on  the  ground. 
Such  a state  of  things,  of  course,  has  long  been  effete,  but 


284 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


the  influences  thereof  remained  for  a considerable  time 
after  the  acts  had  ceased.  There  has  now  been  effected 
a revulsion  of  feeling  in  such  matters.  Commerce  is 
honoured,  trade  is  esteemed,  and  the  Japan  of  to-day  is 
convinced  of  the  fact  that  on  her  commerce,  trade,  and 
industries  the  future  of  the  country  largely  depends.  Men 
of  the  highest  rank,  men  of  the  greatest  culture,  men  of  the 
deepest  probity  are  now  embarked  in  trade  and  commerce 
in  Japan  ; the  whole  moral  atmosphere  connected  with 
trade  has  changed,  and  there  are  at  the  present  time  no 
more  honourable  men  in  the  whole  commercial  world  than 
those  of  Japan.  In  this  matter  there  has  undoubtedly  been 
an  enormous  advance  in  ideas  and  ideals.  This  advance, 
I believe,  is  destined  to  extend  in  other  directions — indeed, 
in  every  direction.  The  Japan  of  to-day  has,  I think,  so 
far  as  I have  been  able  to  gauge  it,  a feeling — a deep  feel- 
ing, which  perhaps  I can  best  describe  as  noblesse  oblige. 
It  is  sensible  of  the  position  the  country  has  attained  ; it 
is  full  of  hope  and  enthusiasm  for  the  future  thereof ; it 
believes  implicitly  that  it  is  incumbent  on  it  not  only  to 
attain  but  to  maintain  a high  moral  standard  in  every 
direction.  It  has  been  urged  as  against  the  Japan  of 
to-day  by  a writer  on  the  subject  that  Spencer  and  Mill 
and  Huxley  have  been  widely  read  by  the  educated  classes, 
and  that  Western  thought  and  practice  as  to  the  structure 
of  society  and  the  freedom  of  the  individual  have  been 
emphasised  throughout  the  country.  I confess  to  feeling 
no  alarm  in  regard  to  the  moral  future  of  Japan  because  it 
has  perused  the  works  of  the  three  philosophers  named. 
It  gives  me  no  trepidation  to  read  that  Mill’s  work  on 
“ Representative  Government  ” has  been  translated  into  a 
volume  of  five  hundred  pages  in  Japanese  and  reached  its 
third  edition.  I am,  on  the  contrary,  pleased  to  learn  that 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


285 


Japan  of  to-day  is  concerned  about  culture,  desirous  of 
reading  the  works  of  those  great  philosophers  whose  names 
are  among  the  immortal.  There  are  no  principles  enun- 
ciated in  any  of  the  books  of  Spencer,  Mill,  or  Huxley  that, 
so  far  as  I know,  can  undermine  the  moral  character  of  the 
Japanese.  On  the  contrary,  I believe  that  a perusal  of 
the  writings  of  those  great  men  will  tend  to  assist  the 
Japanese  into  a clearer  understanding  of  moral  principles, 
and  in  a desire  to  apply  them  to  the  duties  of  life.  I look 
forward  with  great  hope  and  a pronounced  confidence  to 
the  moral  future  of  Japan.  Everything  that  I have  seen 
in  the  country,  everything  that  I have  been  able  to  learn 
respecting  the  people  thereof — the  ideas  prevailing,  the 
teaching  given  in  its  schools  and  universities,  the  whole 
trend  of  thought  in  the  land,  the  literature  read  and  pro- 
duced, the  aspirations,  in  fact,  of  the  Japanese  people 
to-day — lead  me  to  think  and  to  believe  most  firmly  that 
in  the  Japan  of  the  future  we  shall  witness  a nation  on  a 
higher  moral  plane  than  any  of  those  with  which  the 
history  of  the  world  acquaints  us. 

Closely  connected  with  the  moral  advancement  of  Japan 
is  its  intellectual  advancement.  I have  referred  to  the 
statement  made  by  a writer  that  the  Japan  of  to-day  is 
addicted  to  reading  the  works  of  certain  English  philo- 
sophers, and  that  one  of  these  books  translated  into 
Japanese  had  run  through  several  editions.  This  fact  is 
typical  of  the  intellectual  ferment,  the  thirst  for  knowledge 
of  all  kinds  that  exists  in  the  country  to-day.  That  craving 
is  not  for  philosophical  works  alone ; it  extends  to  and 
embraces  every  form  of  literature  of  an  instructive  or 
enlightening  character.  It  is  in  evidence  in  the  higher 
schools  and  the  universities  of  the  country  ; it  is  to  be 
witnessed  in  the  many  periodicals  which  exist  for  the  pro- 


286 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


motion  of  culture  and  the  spread  of  knowledge.  This 
intellectual  ferment,  as  I have,  I think,  appropriately 
termed  it,  is  extending  rapidly,  and  is,  I believe,  destined 
to  assume  much  greater  proportions.  The  literature  of  the 
world  is  at  the  present  time  literally  being  devoured  by 
Young  Japan.  I do  not  regard  this  literary  voracity  as  the 
mere  outcome  of  curiosity,  or  as  in  any  way  symptomatic 
of  mere  mental  unrest.  Young  Japan  appears,  like  Lord 
Bacon,  to  take  all  knowledge  for  its  field  of  study,  and  in 
accord  with  the  philosophical  principles  of  that  great  man, 
the  principles  of  utility  and  progress,  to  be  concerned  with 
everything  that  can  alleviate  the  sufferings  and  promote 
the  comforts  of  mankind.  Of  course,  at  the  present  time 
this  condition  of  craving  for  knowledge  is  confined,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  numbers,  to  a small  portion  of  the 
people.  But  the  intellectuals  of  every  country  are  in  a 
minority — in  some  countries  in  a miserable  minority — and 
the  influence  they  exercise  is  never  proportionate  to  their 
numbers.  At  the  same  time  the  intellectuals  of  Japan  are, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  country  has  for  some  short 
time  been  open  to  Western  influences,  an  amazingly  large 
proportion  of  the  population.  I am  of  opinion  that  this 
intellectual  movement  in  Japan  is  destined  to  widen  con- 
siderably, and  that  its  influence  on  the  people  will  be 
immense.  During  the  whole  history  of  the  world  the 
potency  of  mind  over  matter  has  been  the  greatest  wonder. 
In  these  present  days  this  potency  is  even  more  pro- 
nounced, and  mere  brute  force  is  nowadays  only  made 
effective  when  it  is  influenced  and  regulated  and  organised 
by  mind.  I regard  the  intellectual  development  of  Japan 
as  one  of  the  most  pleasing  features  that  have  accrued  from 
its  contact  with  Western  civilisation.  I do  not  mean  to 
suggest  that  there  was  an  intellectual  atrophy  in  the 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


287 


country  prior  to  those  influences  making  themselves  felt, 
but  there  was  an  isolation  which  is  never  good  for  intel- 
lectual development.  The  broader  the  sympathies  of 
nations,  as  of  individuals,  the  wider  their  outlook,  the 
better  for  their  mental  progress.  When  Japan  was  in  a 
condition  of  isolation  the  literature  available  for  her  people 
was  limited  both  in  style  and  quantity.  Her  people  now 
have  at  their  disposal  the  intellect  of  the  whole  civilised 
world,  the  great  thoughts  of  the  great  men  of  all  ages. 
And  it  is  pleasing  to  be  able  to  relate  that  no  more  appre- 
ciative readers  of  the  world’s  classics  are  to  be  found  than 
the  young  intellectuals  of  Japan  to-day.  I have  said  that 
I regard  this  intellectual  enthusiasm  as  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  features  of  modern  Japan.  That  it  is  destined  to 
have  great  results  I am  firmly  convinced.  I believe,  and  I 
am  not  naturally  an  optimist,  that  in  the  Japan  of  the 
future,  the  not  far-distant  future,  the  world  is  destined  to 
see  a nation  not  only  morally  but  mentally  great,  a nation 
which  will  develop  in  conjunction  those  high  moral  qualities 
which  will  give  it  what  I may  term  a pronounced,  a well- 
defined  character,  and  an  intellectual  greatness  superior  to 
that  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  because  restrained  and 
illumined  by  the  predominance  and  potency  of  moral 
characteristics  which  those  great  nations  did  not  possess. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN — NATIONAL — POLITICAL — ITS 
INFLUENCE  ON  THE  WORLD 

I HAVE  now  come  to  my  final  chapter,  in  which  I 
propose  to  offer  some  remarks  embodying  my  opinion 
as  to  the  future  of  Japan  from  a national  and  political 
standpoint,  as  also  her  influence  upon  the  world  generally. 
The  theme  is  a great  one,  and  would  require  a volume  for 
its  proper  treatment.  Obviously,  therefore,  it  cannot  be 
dealt  with  other  than  cursorily  in  the  few  pages  I am 
about  to  devote  to  it. 

Readers  of  this  book  will,  I think,  have  had  borne  in 
upon  them  the  fact  that  I am  not  only  an  ardent  admirer 
of,  but  a believer  in  Japan  and  the  Japanese.  I utterly 
scout  the  idea  put  forward  by  some  writers  that  what  they 
have  taken  on  of  Western  civilisation  is  either  a veneer  or 
a varnish,  or  that  the  advancement  of  the  nation  resembles 
the  growth  of  the  mushroom  and  is  no  more  stable.  I 
regard  the  Japanese  as  a serious  people  and  the  nation  as 
having  a serious  purpose.  If  I did  not  there  would  be  no 
need  for  me  to  dilate  upon  its  future,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  its  future  would  be  incomprehensible,  and  accordingly 
be  absolutely  impossible  to  forecast.  As  it  is,  it  appears  to 
me  that  the  future  of  Japan  is  as  plain  as  the  proverbial 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


289 


pike-staff.  I say  this  with  a full  knowledge  of  the  dangers 
attendant  on  prophecy  and  the  risk  to  the  reputation  of 
the  vaticinator  should  events  prove  that  he  was  mistaken 
in  his  prevision  or  erroneous  in  his  conclusions. 

I have  traced  in  these  pages  what  I may  term  the 
national  development  of  Japan  ; how,  after  two  and  a half 
centuries  of  isolation,  it,  recognising  the  force  of  circum- 
stances, determined  to  impose  upon  its  own  ancient 
civilisation  all  that  was  best  in  that  of  the  West,  and, 
having  so  determined,  took  practical  and  effective  steps 
to  that  end.  What  is  to  be  the  result  of  it  all,  the  result, 
that  is  to  say,  not  upon  a few  thousands,  or  hundreds  of 
thousands,  of  Japanese,  but  upon  the  nation  as  a whole? 
Will  these  accretions  on  the  old  civilisation  of  the  land 
mould  and  influence  and  alter  the  people  generally,  or  will 
the  effect  be  circumscribed  and  merely  develop  a class 
standing  out  apart  from  the  great  body  of  the  people  and 
affecting  a superiority  because  of  its  Western  culture  ? 
In  my  opinion  the  result  will  be  not  partial,  but  universal, 
though  not  immediate.  There  are,  of  course,  large  portions 
of  Japan,  many  millions  of  its  population,  upon  whom  the 
opening  up  of  the  country  has  as  yet  had  little,  if  any, 
effect.  Many  of  the  Japanese  people  have  hardly  ever 
seen  a foreigner,  or,  if  they  have,  have  viewed  him  with  no 
little  curiosity.  They  certainly  have  not  realised,  and 
possibly  have  not  suspected,  the  effect  which  foreign 
influences  are  likely  to  have  upon  this  Land  of  the  Rising 
Sun.  But  influences,  we  know,  may  be  effective  without 
being  felt,  and  I am  convinced,  from  what  I have  seen  and 
heard  and  the  investigations  I have  been  enabled  to  make, 
that  the  Japan  of  to-day  is  not  only  in  transition — in  rapid 
transition — but  that  its  evolution  is  sure  and  certain,  and 
that  the  result  thereof  will  be  the  ultimate  development  of 
u 


290 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


a nation  which  will  assuredly  impress  the  world  and  will 
very  probably  have  a much  more  potent  effect  upon  it  than 
mere  numbers  would  account  for.  It  is  the  building  up  of 
a nation  such  as  this  that  I confidently  look  forward  to  in 
the  future.  We  of  this  generation  may  not,  probably  will 
not,  live  to  see  it — we  certainly  shall  not  in  its  ultimate 
development — but  we  can  already  see  at  work  the  forces 
which  are  to  produce  it,  and  the  eye  of  faith,  of  a reason- 
able faith,  built  not  on  mere  surmise  or  ardent  hopes,  but 
upon  the  expectation  of  a reasonable  issue  to  the  factors 
at  work  producing  it,  assures  us  that  the  Japan  of  the 
future  will,  as  I have  said,  be  a nation  whose  light  will 
shine,  and  shine  brilliantly,  before  the  whole  world. 

And  as  regards  the  political  future  of  this  wonderful 
country,  I feel  I can  speak  with  equal  confidence.  What  a 
marvellous  change  has  come  over  this  land,  or  our  concep- 
tion of  this  land,  since  the  first  British  Minister  resident 
there  penned  his  impressions  on  approaching  it.  “A 
cluster  of  isles,”  he  remarked,  “ appeared  on  the  farthest 
verge  of  the  horizon,  apparently  inhabited  by  a race  at 
once  grotesque  and  savage — not  much  given  to  hospitality, 
and  rather  addicted  to  martyrising  strangers  of  whose  creed 
they  disapproved.  Thus  much  stood  out  tolerably  dis- 
tinctly, but  little  else  that  was  tangible.  Severance  from 
all  social  ties,  isolation  from  one’s  kind,  and  a pariah 
existence,  far  away  from  all  centres  of  civilisation — far 
beyond  the  utmost  reach  of  railroad  or  telegraph — came 
much  more  vividly  before  me ; and  in  Rembrandt  masses 
of  shade,  with  but  one  small  ray  of  light,  just  enough  to 
give  force  and  depth  to  the  whole — a sense  of  duty,  a duty 
that  must  be  done,  whether  pleasant  or  otherwise,  and  about 
which  there  was  no  choice.  What  a world  of  anxiety  and 
doubt  the  consciousness  of  this  saves  us ! ” This  exordium 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


291 


reads  more  like  the  utterance  of  a man  being  led  out  to 
execution  than  a Minister  going  to  a country  possessing  an 
ancient  civilisation — a civilisation  which  had  had  its  effect 
on  every  phase  of  the  national  life.  What  would  not  many 
of  us  now  give  to  have  been  in  the  place  of  Sir  Rutherford 
Alcock,  visiting  this  land  shortly  after  it  had  been  opened 
after  250  years  of  isolation  ! How  we  should  revel  in  its 
artistic  treasures,  which  had  not  then  been  dispersed  all 
over  the  world  ; and  what  pleasure  we  should  have  taken 
in  seeing  feudalism  otherwise  than  in  the  pages  of  history  ! 
And  yet  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock  was  only  expressing  the 
opinions  of  his  time.  He  could  see  nothing  in  Japan  but 
a grotesque  and  uncivilised  people  whom  the  Western 
nations  had  to  deal  with  in  a peremptory  manner.  What 
a change  there  has  been  in  the  intervening  forty-four 
years!  Japan  now  stands  out  prominently  among  the 
nations,  her  political  future  appears  to  be  secure,  and  it  is 
none  the  less  secure  because  of  the  difficulties  she  has 
encountered  and  overcome  in  attaining  her  present  position. 
I emphasise  all  the  more  readily  her  present  and  future 
political  position  since,  as  I have  previously  observed  in 
this  book,  I believe  that  that  position  will  be  one  exercised 
for  the  good  of  the  world.  I look  upon  Japan  as  a great 
civilising  factor  in  the  future  of  the  human  race  because, 
strong  though  she  is  and  stronger  though  she  will  become, 
I am  positive  that  her  strength  will  never  be  put  forward 
for  any  selfish  aims  or  from  any  improper  motives.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  I welcome  the  alliance  with  Great 
Britain.  I hope  that  alliance  will  not  be  limited  to  any 
term  of  years,  but  will  be  extended  indefinitely,  because  in 
it  I see  a prospect  and  an  assurance  for  the  peace  of  the 
world. 

Inseparable  from  any  allusion  to  the  political  future  of 


292 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Japan  is  some  consideration  of  the  influence  that  she  is 
likely  to  exercise  upon  the  world  generally.  Any  person 
taking  up  an  atlas  and  looking  at  the  position  occupied 
by  Japan  must,  if  he  is  of  a thoughtful  disposition,  be 
impressed  by  it.  Take  the  question  of  the  Pacific — one 
which,  in  view  of  the  change  in  the  policy  of  the  United 
States  of  recent  years,  must  assume  considerable  import- 
ance in  the  future.  There  are  various  factors  which  must 
be  taken  into  account  here.  The  construction  of  the 
Panama  Canal  is  one,  the  completion  of  the  Siberian 
Railway  another,  the  development  of  Canada  and  the 
completion  of  the  railway  lines  that  now  penetrate  nearly 
every  part  of  that  vast  dominion  is  a third.  Japan  is  now, 
in  fact,  the  very  centre  of  three  great  markets — those  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  In  the  struggle  for  the 
mastery  of  the  Pacific,  which  appears  certain  to  come, 
and  will  probably  come  sooner  than  many  people  suppose, 
Japan  is  certain  to  take  a momentous  part.  Not  only  in 
respect  of  her  own  islands,  but  in  reference  to  the  great 
island  of  Formosa,  ceded  to  her  by  China  as  the  outcome 
of  the  war  with  that  Power,  Japan  occupies  a unique  and  a 
most  important  position  in  the  Pacific.  As  regards  the 
mastery  of  the  Pacific,  in  reference  to  which  so  much  has 
been  written  and  so  much  speculation,  a large  amount  of 
it  unprofitable,  has  been  indulged,  I shall  say  but  little. 
On  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Russia  still  remains  a power, 
which,  though  defeated  by  Japan,  is  still  one  of  consider- 
able importance.  On  the  other  side  of  the  ocean  there  is 
the  United  States,  which,  as  some  persons  think,  has  given 
hostages  to  fortune  by  annexing  the  Philippine  Islands. 
England,  moreover,  claims  consideration  in  respect  not 
only  of  her  possessions  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  Hong 
Kong,  &c.,  but  by  reason  of  her  great  Navy  and,  I may 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


293 


add,  her  alliance  with  Japan.  Then,  too,  there  are  China, 
and,  if  of  less  importance,  France  and  Germany.  Of  all 
these  Japan,  in  my  opinion,  occupies  the  commanding 
position.  She  not  only  occupies  the  commanding  position, 
but  she  is,  I think,  from  various  causes,  bound  to  play  a 
great  part  in  the  future  mastery  of  the  Pacific. 

It  is  apparent  that  in  the  attainment  and  assertion  of  that 
mastery  naval  power  must  have  a great  and  predominant 
part,  and  it  is  to  the  development  of  her  naval  power 
that  Japan  is  devoting  all  her  energies.  Like  Great 
Britain,  from  whom  she  has  learned  many  lessons  in 
this  respect,  she  sees  that  an  island  empire  can  only 
maintain  its  position  by  possessing  an  overpowering 
naval  force.  As  I have  said  before,  I am  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  fact  that  in  the  development  of  her 
Navy,  as  of  her  Army,  Japan  has  no  aggressive  designs. 
Her  aspiration  is  the  security  and  prevention  from 
invasion  of  her  island  and  the  preservation  of  her 
national  independence.  At  the  same  time,  situated  as 
she  is  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean,  she  has  palpably, 
from  her  position,  rights  and  responsibilities  and 

duties  outside  the  immediate  confines  of  her  Empire. 
That,  I think,  will  be  admitted  by  any  one.  The 
phrase,  “spheres  of  influence”  has  become  somewhat 
hackneyed  of  recent  years,  and  it  has  occasionally  been 
used  to  give  colour  to  aggressive  designs.  There  may, 
too,  be  people  who  would  say  that  spheres  of  influence 
is  not  a term  that  can  properly  be  applied  to  a great 
water-way  such  as  the  Pacific.  I am  not,  however,  on 
the  present  occasion  arguing  with  pedants.  What  I 
desire  is  to  broadly  emphasise  the  fact  that  in  tl^e 
future  of  the  Pacific — those  innumerable  isles  dotted 
here  and  there  over  its  surface,  Japan  is  a factor  that 


294 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


cannot  be  left  out  of  account.  Year  by  year  her 
position  there  is  increasing  in  importance.  Steamers  ply 
to  her  ports  weekly  from  Vancouver  and  San  Francisco. 
The  Japanese  population  are  emigrating  to  the  Pacific 
shores  of  America,  the  trade  and  commerce  of  Japan 
with  the  American  Continent  are  growing  and  broad- 
ening. Everything  in  fact  tends  to  show  that  within  a 
comparatively  short  space  of  time  Japan  will  have 
asserted  her  position,  not  only  as  a Great  World 
Power,  but  as  a great  commercial  nation  in  the 
Pacific.  What  is  to  be  the  outcome  of  it  all?  is  the 
question  that  will  naturally  arise  to  the  mind.  I think 
that  one  outcome  of  it  will  be,  as  I have  shown,  the 
capture  by  Japan  of  the  Chinese  trade,  if  not  in  its 
entirety,  at  any  rate  in  a very  large  degree.  Another 
outcome  will,  I believe,  be  the  enormous  development  of 
Japanese  trade  with  both  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Some  people  may  remark  that  these  are  not  essen- 
tially political  matters,  and  that  I am  somewhat 
wandering  from  my  point  in  treating  of  them  in  connec- 
tion with  the  influence  of  Japan  upon  the  world 
generally.  I do  not  think  so.  A nation  may  assert 
its  influence  and  emphasise  its  importance  to  just  as 
great  an  extent  by  its  trade  as  by  the  double-dealings 
of  diplomacy  or  by  other  equally  questionable  methods. 
Of  one  thing  I am  convinced,  and  that  is  that  the 
influence  of  Japan  upon  the  rest  of  the  world  will 
be  a singularly  healthy  one.  That  country  has  fortu- 
nately struck  out  for  itself,  in  diplomacy  as  in  other 
matters,  a new  line.  It  has  not  behind  it  any  tradi- 
tions, nor  before  it  prejudices  wherewith  to  impede  its 
progress.  The  diplomacy  of  Japan  will,  accordingly,  be 
conducted  in  a straightforward  manner,  and  its  record 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAN 


295 


so  far  in  this  respect  has,  I think,  provided  a splendid 
object-lesson  for  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  influence 
of  Japan  upon  the  other  nations  will  I hope,  as  I 
believe,  continue  to  be  of  a healthy  nature.  If  that 
country  sets  forth  prominently  the  fact  that  while 
aspiring  to  be  great,  it  possesses  none  of  those  attri- 
butes that  we  have  previously  associated  with  great 
nations,  the  attributes  of  greed,  covetousness,  aggressive- 
ness, and  overbearing — an  arrogant  attitude  in  regard  to 
weaker  Powers,  it  will  have  performed  a notable  service 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  For  myself  I have  no 
doubt  whatever  that  Japan  will  teach  this  lesson,  and 
in  teaching  it  will  have  justified  the  great  place  that 
she  has  attained  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

I have  now  concluded  the  task  that  I set  before  myself. 
My  readers  must  be  judges  as  to  the  measure  of  success, 
if  any,  I have  attained  in  it.  To  attempt  a survey  of 
the  past,  present,  and  future  of  a great  and  ancient  nation 
within  the  limited  space  at  my  disposal  has  been  by 
no  means  easy.  Every  subject  I have  had  under 
consideration  has  invited  discursiveness,  and  tempted 
me  to  linger  and  dilate  upon  it,  and  it  alone.  The 
fascination  of  Japan  must  be  upon  every  one,  or  almost 
every  one,  who  writes  about  it,  and  that  fascination  is, 
I may  observe,  like  the  art  of  the  country,  catholic. 
Whether  we  deeply  and  exhaustively  investigate  one 
subject  and  one  subject  only,  or  take  a hurried  glance 
at  every  or  almost  every  subject,  we  feel  a glamour  in 
respect  of  this  wonderful  country  and  its  equally  wonder- 
ful people.  While  I have  endeavoured  to  prevent  this 
fascination,  this  glamour,  affecting  my  judgment,  I am 
not  ashamed  to  plead  guilty  to,  but  am,  in  fact,  rather 
proud  of  it.  Indeed,  I shall  feel  gratified  if  a perusal 


296 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


of  this  book  induces  a few  persons  here  and  there  to  study 
still  more  deeply  the  history,  the  religion,  the  art  of 
Japan,  and  the  whole  trend  of  events  in  that  country 
during  the  past  forty  years.  Every  phase  of  the  national 
life  lends  itself  to  investigation,  and  will,  I feel  sure, 
reward  the  investigator.  He  will,  unless  he  be  a person  of 
a singularly  unemotional  disposition,  utterly  lacking  in  all 
those  finer  feelings  which  especially  distinguish  man  from 
the  brutes,  hardly  fail  of  being,  before  he  has  proceeded 
far  in  his  investigations,  quickly  under  the  alluring 
influences  of  this  Far  Eastern  land,  entering  heartily, 
zealously,  and  enthusiastically  into  its  national  life  and  the 
developments  thereof  in  all  their  various  ramifications. 

The  fascination  that  Japan  has  exercised  upon  writers 
such  as  Arnold  and  Hearn  is  what  it  does,  though  no 
doubt  in  a smaller  degree,  upon  less  gifted  men.  It  is 
given  to  few  to  drink  in  and  absorb  the  subtle  charm 
of  the  country  so  thoroughly  and  express  it  so  graphically 
and  delicately,  with  such  beauty  and  power  and  withal  so 
much  truth  as  have  those  brilliant  men.  I regard  this 
great  and  growing  fascination  of  Occidentals  for  this 
fair  Eastern  land  and  its  inhabitants  as  a long  step  in  the 
direction  of  the  realisation  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  ; that 
ideal  state  of  things  which  we  hope  for  so  expectantly, 
longingly,  perhaps  too  often  sceptically ; that  happy 
time  when  national  prejudices,  jealousies,  and  animosities 
will  have  faded  into  oblivion,  when  nations  by  the  simple 
process  of  studying  one  another,  as  Japan  has  been  studied 
of  recent  years,  will  get  to  understand  one  another,  when 
the  literature  and  art  of  nations  will  be  no  longer  merely 
national,  but  world  possessions,  when  wars  shall  have 
ceased  and  the  policy  of  aggression  have  come  to  be 
regarded  as  an  evil  thing,  when,  in  a word,  the  brotherhood 


THE  FUTURE  OF  JAPAJ^ 


297 


of  man  shall  be  no  longer  an  idle  dream,  a mere  specula- 
tive aspiration  which  no  practical  person  ever  expected  to 
see  realised,  but  an  actuality  within  measurable  distance 
of  being  accomplished.  All  these  things  may  as  yet  be 
dreams,  but  let  us  dream  them.  The  more  they  are 
dreamed,  the  more  likely  is  the  prospect  of  their  realisa- 
tion. One  thing  at  least  fills  me  with  ardent  hope,  and  that 
is  the  Japan,  as  I see  it  to-day,  compared  with  the  Japan 
of  forty  years  ago.  If  such  an  upheaval  is  possible  for 
one  nation,  who  shall  put  any  bounds  to  the  potentialities 
of  the  world  ? So  let  us  dream  our  dreams,  and  in  our 
waking  moments  cast  afar  our  eyes  upon  the  land  of  the 
Rising,  aye,  now  the  Risen  Sun,  take  heart  and  dream 
again  in  quiet  confidence  that  some  day,  in  some  future 
reincarnation,  mayhap,  we  shall  witness  the  realisation  of 
our  hopes,  and  see  that  after  all  our  dreams  were  merely 
an  intelligent  anticipation  of  the  glad  time  coming. 


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INDEX 


A 

Acrobatic  performances,  199 
Actresses,  199 
Adams,  Will,  5 

Advancement,  Intellectual,  279, 
285 

Physical,  279 
Moral,  279,  281 

Advertising  in  newspapers,  205 
Agriculture,  Thunberg’s  account 
of,  8 

System  of,  23 
Ainos,  the,  37,  170,  250 
Aino  Preservation  Society,  251 
Alcock,  Sir  Rutherford,  6,  272, 273, 
291 

Alloys,  making  of,  157 
America,  United  States  of,  293 
Amusements  of  Japanese,  68 
Ancestor  worship,  73 
Arboriculture,  86 
Archery,  72 
Architecture,  167 
Art  in,  167,  175 
Modern,  173 
Korean,  172 
Arita,  142 

Army,  Japanese,  117 
Armour,  154 


Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  193,  194,  267, 
296 

Art,  Japanese,  13 1,  149 
Art  in  Architecture,  175 
Art  Treasures,  165 
Artistic  ideals,  163 
Artists,  Japanese,  133 
Lacquer  137 

Asiatic  Continent,  proximity  to, 

17 

Aston,  Mr.,  194 
Athletics,  113 

B 

Banks,  Japanese,  97 
European,  97 
Baths,  65,  75 

Bathing,  mixed,  abolished,  282 
Bear,  black,  27 
Bedding,  65 
Bells,  153 

Beresford,  Lord  Charles,  229 
Bills,  Treasury,  94 
Bird,  Miss,  212,  217 
Birds,  27 

Bizen  ware,  144,  145 
Bon  Matsuri,  71 
“ Break-up  of  China,”  229 
Brinkley,  Captain,  207 


300 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Bronze  work,  153 
Bungo,  Prince  of,  2 
Buddha,  statues  of,  15 1 
Buddhism,  39,  40,  41 
Influences  of,  48,  77 
Buddhist  religion,  command- 
ments of,  42 

C 

“ Capital  of  the  Tycoon,”  6,  272, 

273 

Canada,  292 
Castles,  feudal,  171 
Cavalry,  171 

Lack  of  horses,  26 
Cemeteries,  73 
Ceramic  ware,  140 

Decoration  of,  145 
Cereals,  23 
Ceremonies,  tea,  141 
Chamberlain,  Basil  Hall,  44,  13 1, 
152,  250 

Chastity  of  women,  217 
Children,  67 

Attendance  at  school,  104 
China,  221 

War  with,  93,  208 
Japanisation  of,  224 
Awakening  of,  229 
China  ware,  see  porcelain  and 
pottery 

Chinese  indemnity,  228 
legal  system,  186 
Chiuzenji,  Lake,  26 
Christenings,  72 

Christian  Missions,  46,  47,  239, 
256 

Christianity,  conversion  of  Japan- 
ese to,  3,  261 
Cleanliness  of  people,  75 
Climate,  19 


Clothing  of  Japanese,  68 
Coal,  22 

College,  Police,  and  Prison,  188 
Commerce,  80 
Commercial  morality,  236 
Community,  foreign,  235,  239 
Confucianism,  39 
Conscription,  system  of,  119 
Constitution  of  Japan,  49,  58,  59 
Copper,  157 
Copper  ware,  153 
Costume,  Japanese,  161 
Cotton,  23 

Court,  Supreme,  of  China  and 
Japan,  231 

Courts,  Consular,  231 
Courts,  Japanese,  234,  235 
Crane,  Walter,  132 
Curios,  16 1 

Curriculum,  school,  105 
D 

Dai  Butsus,  151 

Daimios,  51,  139,  155,  158,  185 

Dalny,  17 

Daynogawa,  River,  26 

Death  penalty,  190 

Debates,  parliamentary,  57 

Debt,  National,  91,  95 

Decoration  of  ceramic  ware,  145 

De  Fonblanque,  138 

Descent  of  Japanese  Sovereigns. 

52 

Development  of  Japan,  289 
Dickins,  F.  V.,  232,  240 
Diet,  Imperial  Japanese,  52,  53 
Diosy,  Mr.  Arthur,  213 
Diplomacy,  methods  of,  294 
Diseases,  20, 66 

Douglas,  Admiral  Sir  A.  L.,  126 


INDEX 


301 


Drama,  the  Japanese,  193,  198 
Dress  of  the  Japanese,  68 
Dresser,  Dr.,  168,  169 
Dutch,  their  settlement  at  Decima, 
3,  25,  134,  142 
Duties,  Customs,  233 

E 

Earthenware,  set  Pottery  and 
Porcelain 
Earthquakes,  19 
Education,  102 
Education,  Board  of,  103 
Electors,  Japanese,  qualifications 
of,  55 

Electoral  districts,  55 
Elgin,  Lord,  124 
Embroidery,  silk  and  satin,  16 1 
Emperor,  51,  52 
Position  of,  60 
English  officers,  125 
Espionage,  elaborate  system  of, 
10 

Europeans  in  Japan,  230 
Europeanising  of  Japan,  230 
Evergreens,  Japanese,  24 
Exports  and  Imports,  81,  83 
Expulsion  of  foreigners  from 
Japan, 3 

F 

Fascination  of  Japan,  295,  296 
Fauna  of  Japan,  27 
Feast  of  Dolls,  71 
of  Flags,  70 
Festivals  and  feasts,  69 
Feudal  system  in  Japan,  50 
Financial  and  Economical  Annual, 

91 

’Fish,  24 


Flora  of  Japan,  24 
Flowers,  73 
Food,  66 

Foreigners  in  Japan,  231 
Foreign  community,  235,  239 
Foreign  market,  manufacture  of 
articles  for,  146 
Foreign  troops  in  Japan,  234 
Forests,  22,  86 
Formosa,  17,  292 
France,  293 
Fruit,  Japanese,  23 
Fuji-yama,  18,  138 
Furniture,  household,  65 
Future  of  Japan,  274 

Political,  279,  288,  290 
National,  288 

G 

Gardens,  Japanese,  75 
Geisha,  The,  213 
Generals,  Japanese,  122 
Germany,  225,  293 
German  Emperor,  222 
Girls,  schools  for,  106,  114 
Gold,  157 

Gordon,  General,  228 
Government,  constitution  of,  52 
Great  Britain,  207,  293 
Gregory  XIII.,  mission  from  Japan 
to,  3 

Griffis,  155 

Grotesque  in  Japanese  art,  135, 

145 

H 

Hair,  Mr.  Thomas,  55 
Hakodate,  18,  254,  256 
Battle  of,  125 
Hara-Kiri,  154,  265 
Harbours,  21 


302 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Harvest  festival,  70 
Hawes,  Lieut.  A.  G.  S.,  R.M.L.I., 
126 

Health  of  the  people,  20 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  152,  258,  267,  296 

Heian  period,  195 

Hill,  Dr.  G.  Birnie,  R.N.,  128 

History,  Japanese,  i 

Hizen  ware,  145 

Holidays  in  Japan,  69 

Hong-Kong,  292 

Honshiu,  17 

Horses,  26,  121 

Houses,  Japanese,  64,  170 

I 

Images,  carving  of,  158 
Imari  ware,  140,  142 
Industries,  80 

Influence  of  Japan,  279,  288 
Inland  Sea,  21 

Intellectual  advancement,  279,  285 

Iron,  157 

Irrigation,  23 

Ise  ware,  140 

I to.  Marquis,  81 

Ivory,  carvings  in,  149 

Iwasaki,  Mr.,  129 

J 

Japan,  Constitution  of,  49,  58,  59 
Development  of,  289 
English  newspapers  in,  207 
Europeans  in,  230 
Europeanising  of,  230 
Expulsion  of  foreigners  from, 
3 

Fascination  of,  295,  296 
Fauna  of,  27 
Feudal  system  in,  50 


Japan  {continued) — 

Flora  of,  24 
for  the  Japanese,  242 
Foreigners  in,  231 
Foreign  troops  in,  234 
Future  of,  274,  279,  288,  290 
Holidays  in,  69 
Missionaries  in,  46,  47,  239, 
256 

Naval  Officer’s  description  of, 

II 

Occidentilation  of,  269 
Portuguese  visits  to,  2 
Present  position  of,  263 
Press,  “ Yellow,”  in,  206 
Religions  of,  39 
Tourists  in,  26,  241 
Trade  of  China,  capture  by, 
227,  294 

Transition  of,  274 
Vice  in,  212,  217 
Young,  270,  287 
Japan  Times,  The,  202 
Japanese,  amusements  of,  68 
Army,  117 
art,  13 1,  149 
artists,  133 
banks,  97 

Conversion  of,  to  Christianity, 
3,  261 

Clothing  of,  68 
Constitution  of,  49,  58,  59 
costume,  161 
courts,  234,  235 
Descent  of  Sovereigns,  52 
Diet,  Imperial,  52,  53 
drama,  193,  198 
Dress  of,  68 

electors,  qualifications  of,  55 
evergreens,  24 
fruit,  23 


INDEX 


303 


Japanese  {continued) — 
gardens,  75 
Generals,  122 
grotesque  in  art,  135,  145 
history,  1 
houses,  64,  170 
language,  33,  34,  109 
legal  system,  187 
literature,  37,  193 
morality,  13,  211 

commercial,  236,  283 
Navy,  1 17,  123 
oligarchy,  61 
paper,  87 
Parliament,  56 
people,  63 
pictures,  158 
pillow,  65 
plays,  199 
Psychology  of,  264 
race,  29,  30 
schools,  104 
subjects,  S3 
Jinrickshas,  182 

K 

Kaemfer,  5,  30,  39,  153 
Kaga  ware,  140,  144 
Kakemonos,  65,  160 
Ken  sect,  44 
Kiusiu,  17 
Kobe,  25 
Korea,  172,  262 
Korean  architecture,  172 
potters,  141 
Kumoto,  Mr.,  202,  203 
Kurile  Isles,  17 
Kutania  ware,  145 
Kyoto,  25,  158,  i8i 
Kyoto  ware,  140,  144,  145 


L 

Labour  question,  88 
organisations,  88 
Labour  World  newspaper,  88 
Lacquer,  135 
artists,  137 

Language,  Japanese,  charac- 
teristics of,  33 
Origin  of,  34 

Educational  difficulties,  109 
Law  and  order,  185 
Legal  system,  Japanese,  187 
Letters,  number  posted,  178 
Literature,  Japanese,  37,  193 
Loans,  qo,  92 
Loo-Choo  Islands,  17 
Loti,  Pierre,  213 
Luxury,  absence  of,  74 


M 

Macao,  142 

Machinery,  manufacture  of,  81 
"Madame  Chrysantheme,”  213 
Magazines,  207 
Makimonos,  160 
Manufactures,  83 
Marco  Paolo,  i 

Marks  on  pottery  and  porcelain, 
148 

Marriages,  72 
Matches,  96 
Mercantile  Marine,  129 
Metals,  21,  157 
Metal  work,  153 
workers,  156 

industries,  decline  in,  157 
Metallurgists,  152 
Mikado,  50,  51  ; also  see  Emperor 
Mineral  wealth,  2i,  157 


304 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Minister,  British,  at  Japanese 
Court,  239 

Missionaries  in  Japan,  46,  47,  239, 
256 

in  China,  225 
Mitake,  Mount,  i8 
Mitsui,  house  of,  97 
Mitsui  Bussan  Kwiasha,  99 
Mitsu  Bishi  Company,  129 
Monkey,  red-faced,  27 
Morality,  Japanese,  13,  211 
Commercial,  236,  283 
Moral  advancement,  279,  281 
Moral  code,  educational,  1 10 
Mountains,  18 

Municipalities,  European,  232 
Music,  69 

N 

Nagasaki,  21,  25 
Nagoya,  25 

Castle  at,  171 
Nara,  Temple  of,  167 
Navy,  Japanese,  117,  123 
Naval  officer’s  description  of 
Japan,  ii 

Netsukes,  149,  150 
“New  Far  East,”  213 
New  Year’s  Day,  69 
Newspapers,  89,  200 
Circulation  of,  205 
English,  in  Japan,  207 
News  agencies,  204 
Nikko,  26 

Pagoda  at,  169 
Temples  at,  173,  174 
Nippon,  17 

Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha,  129 
“ No,”  the,  200 
Notes,  bank,  93 


O 

Oligarchy,  Japanese,  61 
Oxen,  27 

P 

Pacific,  mastery  of,  292 
Pagodas,  17 1 
Painting,  158 

Schools  of,  159 
Western  influences  on,  159 
Panama  Canal,  292 
Paper,  Japanese,  87 
Paper  money,  13 
Parkes,  Sir  Harry,  240 
Life  of,  240 

Parliament,  Japanese,  56 
Parties  and  party  system,  58 
Passports,  233 
Peers,  House  of,  53 
People,  Japanese,  life  and  habits, 

63 

Petroleum,  86 
Phallic  worship,  281 
Philippine  Islands,  292 
Philologists  andjapanese  language, 
33 

Philosophers,  English,  widely  read, 
284,  285 

Philosophy  of  life,  78 
Physical  advancement,  279 
Physical  features  of  country,  17 
Physique,  112 
Pictures,  Japanese,  158 
Pigs,  27 

Pillow,  Japanese,  65 
Plays,  Japanese,  199 
Poetry,  194 

in  newspapers,  205 
Police,  188 
Political  future,  279 


INDEX 


305 


Population,  17 
Porcelain,  140,  142,  X45 
Modern,  147 
Marks  on,  148 
Port  Arthur,  17 
Portuguese  visits  to  Japan,  2 
Postal  service,  177 
orders,  178 

Post-office  business,  178 
Savings  Bank,  179 
Post-offices,  foreign,  232 
Potters,  Korean,  141 
Pottery,  140 

Marks  on,  148 

Press,  “Yellow,”  in  Japan,  206 
Functions  of,  210 
Newspaper,  202 
Prisons,  189 
Prison  system,  190 
Privy  Council,  59 
Prostitution,  215,  283 
Punch,  Yokohama,  209 
Punishments,  190 
Psychology  of  Japanese,  264 

R 

Race,  Japanese,  its  origin,  29 
Theories  regarding,  30 
Railways,  25,  176 
Raku  ware,  140,  145 
Rein,  Professor,  19 
Religions  of  Japan,  39 

influence  on  people,  76 
Representatives,  House  of,  53,  55 
Resources  of  country,  90 
Revenue,  loi 

Revolution  of  1868,  21,  165,  186, 
197,  203 

Rhus  Vemicifera,  22,  138 
Rice,  23,  84 

X 


Rivers,  19 

Royal  Family,  style  and  address 
of,  defined,  59 
Russia,  292 

Russia,  war  with,  120,  127,  221 
Ryder,  Admiral  Sir  A.  P.,  240 

S 

Sake,  25 

St.  Francis  Xavier,  2,  41,  45,  47, 
134,  260,  261,  271 
Sakhalin,  17,  18 
Salt,  87 

Samurai,  155,  236,  283 
San  Francisco,  294 
Satin  embroidery,  161 
Satsuma,  Prince  of,  134 
ware,  140,  143,  144,  145 
Savings  Banks,  Post-office,  179 
Scabbards,  sword,  155 
Scenery,  25 
Schools,  Japanese,  104 
for  girls,  106,  114 
Higher,  107 
Technical,  108 
of  painting,  159 
of  progressive  art,  147 
Sculpture,  149 
Seto  ware,  145 
Shampooing,  75 
Sheep,  27 

Shiba,  temples  at,  158,  173,  174 
Shikoku, 17 
Shingon  Yoko  sect,  44 
Shinto  temples,  45 
Shintoism,  39,  40,  41 
Influences  of,  48,  77 
Shirakawa,  Emperor,  42 
Shogun,  51 
Shrines,  77 
Siberian  railway,  292 


306 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST 


Silk,  83 

embroidery,  16 1 
-worms,  84 
Silver,  157 
Smoking,  66 
Snakes,  27 

Social  intercourse,  237 
Socialism,  89 
State,  82 

Spheres  of  influence,  293 
Stonewall  Jackson,  125 
Straits  Settlements,  292 
Sugar,  87 

Subjects,  Japanese,  rights  and 
duties  of  defined,  53 
Swords,  154 

Abolition  of  wearing  of,  155 
Accessories,  156 
Sword-makers,  155 

T 

Tea,  24,  95 

ceremonies,  141 
houses,  24 
industry,  86 

Tea  Traders’  Association,  85 
Telegrams,  180 
Telegraphs,  179 
Telephones,  180 
Temperature  of  Japan,  20 
Temples,  Buddhist,  171,  173,  174 
Shinto,  171 

Some  Buddhist,  a visit  to,  244 
Construction  of,  158 
Tendai  sect,  44 
Territoriality,  extra,  232,  235 
Theatre,  68,  199 
“ Things  Japanese,”  131 
Thunberg,  6 
Tin,  157 

Tobacco,  66,  82,  86,  149 


Tokio,  20,  25,  181 
Tokugawa  period,  191 
Tooth-powder,  162 
Tourists  in  Japan,  26,  241 
Trade,  80 

Chinese,  capture  by  Japan, 
227,  294 

Traders,  236,  237 
Tramways,  181 
Transition  of  Japan,  274 
Treasures,  art,  165,  168 
Trees,  22 

Tsu-Shima,  18,  240 
Turanian  race,  33 
Tycoon,  ii,  12,  13,  51 
Typhoons,  21 

U 

Utilitarianism  in  art,  143 
“ Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,”  212 
United  States  of  America,  293 
export  of  tea  to,  85 
University,  Imperial,  107 
Universities,  107,  116 

V 

Vancouver,  294 
Vice  in  Japan,  212,  217 
Vladivostock,  18 
Volcanoes,  18 

W 

War  with  China,  93,  208 
Russia,  120,  127,  221 
Ware,  ceramic,  140 
Wergman  Mr.,  209 
Whistler,  Mr.,  160 
White  peril,  227 
Wild  animals,  27 


INDEX 


307 


Wild  birds,  27 

Wilson,  Admiral  Sir  A.  K.,  126 
Wolf,  27 

Women,  position  of,  67 
Wrestling,  72 

X 

Xavier,  St.  Francis,  2,  41,  45,  47 
134,  260,  261,  271 


Y 

“ Yellow  peril,”  the,  222,  226 
Yesso,  17,  250 
Yokohama,  25,  234 
Yokosko,  dockyard  at,  123 
Yomuri,  202 

Yoshiwara,  215,  216,  218,  220 

239 

Young  Japan,  270,  287 


C^e  ^rtss, 

UNWIN  BROTHERS,  LIMITED* 


WOKING  AND  LONDON. 


DATE  DUE 


